Processing materials

ABSTRACT

Biomass (e.g., plant biomass, animal biomass, and municipal waste biomass) is processed to produce useful intermediates and products, such as energy, fuels, foods or materials. For example, systems and methods are described that can be used to treat feedstock materials, such as cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic materials, while cooling equipment and the biomass to prevent overheating and possible distortion and/or degradation. The biomass is conveyed by a conveyor, which conveys the biomass under an electron beam from an electron beam accelerator. The conveyor can be cooled with cooling fluid. The conveyor can also vibrate to facilitate exposure to the electron beam. The conveyor can be configured as a trough that can be optionally cooled.

This application is a continuation application of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 15/195,206, filed Jun. 28, 2016, which is acontinuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/435,026,filed Apr. 10, 2015, which is a National Stage of InternationalApplication No. PCT/US2013/064320 filed on Oct. 10, 2013, which claimsthe benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/711,801, filed onOct. 10, 2012; 61/711,807, filed on Oct. 10, 2012; 61/774,684, filed onMar. 8, 2013; 61/774,773, filed on Mar. 8, 2013; 61/774,731, filed onMar. 8, 2013; 61/774,735, filed on Mar. 8, 2013; 61/774,740, filed onMar. 8, 2013; 61/774,744, filed on Mar. 8, 2013; 61/774,746, filed onMar. 8, 2013; 61/774,750, filed on Mar. 8, 2013; 61/774,752, filed onMar. 8, 2013; 61/774,754, filed on Mar. 8, 2013; 61/774,775, filed onMar. 8, 2013; 61/774,780, filed on Mar. 8, 2013; 61/774,761, filed onMar. 8, 2013; 61/774,723, filed on Mar. 8, 2013; and 61/793,336, filedon Mar. 15, 2013, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference intheir entireties.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Many potential lignocellulosic feedstocks are available today, includingagricultural residues, woody biomass, municipal waste, oilseeds/cakesand seaweed, to name a few. At present, these materials are oftenunder-utilized, being used, for example, as animal feed, biocompostmaterials, burned in a co-generation facility or even landfilled.

Lignocellulosic biomass includes crystalline cellulose fibrils embeddedin a hemicellulose matrix, surrounded by lignin. This produces a compactmatrix that is difficult to access by enzymes and other chemical,biochemical and/or biological processes. Cellulosic biomass materials(e.g., biomass material from which the lignin has been removed) is moreaccessible to enzymes and other conversion processes, but even so,naturally-occurring cellulosic materials often have low yields (relativeto theoretical yields) when contacted with hydrolyzing enzymes.Lignocellulosic biomass is even more recalcitrant to enzyme attack.Furthermore, each type of lignocellulosic biomass has its own specificcomposition of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.

SUMMARY

This invention relates to systems, methods and processing equipment usedfor producing products from materials, such as biomass material.Generally, the method includes treating a recalcitrant biomass withelectron beams while conveying the material using one or more conveyorand then biochemically and chemically processing the reducedrecalcitrance material to make, for example, ethanol, xylitol and/orother products. The processes and equipment include methods and systemsfor cooling while conveying and irradiating a material, such as abiomass.

In one aspect the invention relates to a method of conveying a materialunder an electron beam including exposing a material, e.g., biomassmaterial, to an electron beam while conveying the material on a cooledsurface (e.g., at least partially cooled trough) of a conveyor. Forexample, conveying can include supporting the material (e.g. biomass) ona first surface of the trough, and the method can include cooling asecond surface of the trough. The distance between the first and secondsurface of the trough can be between about 1/64″-2″ (e.g., 1/64″-1″,1/64″-½″, 1/32″-1″, 1/32″-½″, 1/32″-¼″, 1/16″-1″, 1/64″-½″, 1/64″-¼″,1/64″-⅛″, 1″-2″). The first and second surfaces of the trough can be inthermal communication. Optionally, the electron beam has at least 100 kWof power (e.g., at least 250 kW, at least 1000 KW).

In another aspect the conveyor is vibrated. Optionally, the vibratoryconveyor has a trough and is oscillated in a direction parallel to thedirection of conveying and perpendicular to the electron beam. In someimplementations, the trough comprises a metal (e.g., aluminum, stainlesssteel number 316/316 L or any other alloys of metals).

In some implementations, wherein there is a first and second surface inthermal communication, the second surface can be cooled by contactingthe surface with an enclosure containing a cooling fluid. This troughconfiguration can be for both the conveyor and the vibratory conveyorand the two configurations are denoted by conveyor trough and avibratory conveyor trough, respectively. Optionally, the second surfaceof the conveyor forms a part of the enclosure. The method can furtherinclude flowing fluid through the enclosure by flowing the cooling fluidinto the enclosure through an inlet to the enclosure and flowing thefluid out of the enclosure through an outlet from the enclosure.Optionally, the enclosure comprises channels configured to allow theflow of the cooling agent from the inlet to the outlet. Optionally, adifference in the temperature of the cooling agent at the inlet of theenclosure to the temperature at the outlet of the enclosure of betweenabout 2 to 120° C. can be maintained (e.g., between about 2 to 30° C.,between about 10 to 50° C., between about 20 to 70° C., between about 30to 90° C., between about 40 to 110° C., between about 50 to 120° C.).Optionally a flow rate of cooling fluid through the enclosure of between0.5 and 150 gallons/min can be maintained.

In another aspect, the invention relates to an apparatus for irradiatinga material. The apparatus can include an electron beam irradiationdevice and a vibratory conveying system. The conveying system caninclude a cooled trough. The trough can be configured to convey amaterial (e.g. a biomass material), for example, while the trough isbeing cooled. The trough can include a first surface configured tosupport and convey a biomass material, and a second surface that is inthermal communication with the first surface and is configured tocontact a cooling system. The distance between the first and secondsurface of the trough can be between about 1/64″-2″(e.g. 1/64″-1″,1/64″-½″, 1/32″-1″, 1/32″-½″, 1/32″-¼″, 1/16″-1″, 1/64″-½″, 1/64″-¼″,1/64″-⅛″, 1″-2″). Optionally, the cooling system comprises a coolingenclosure configured to contain a cooling fluid and positioned inthermal communication with the second surface. The cooling enclosure caninclude an inlet for the cooling fluid and an outlet for the coolingfluid. In addition, the enclosure can further includes channelsconfigured to allow flow of the cooling fluid through the enclosure fromthe inlet to the outlet. In some implementations, the apparatus includesan electron irradiation device that can have a relatively high totalelectron beam power of at least 25 kW (e.g., at least 100 kW at least250 kW, at least 1000 kW). Optionally, the trough comprises a metal(e.g., aluminum, stainless steel number 316/316 L or any other alloys ofmetals). Alternatively, the trough comprises corrosion resistant metalssuch as Hastelloy, Inconel, Ultimet, Monel. Also the trough may becoated with corrosive resistant coating.

In yet another aspect, the invention relates to a method of conveying amaterial through a field of accelerated electrons, the electronsimpinging upon a treatment zone of a conveyor, wherein the treatmentzone includes a beam dump in thermal communication with the treatmentzone. The beam dump can be optionally positioned on a side of theconveyor opposite impinging electrons. Optionally, the beam dump isintegral with the treatment zone. The method can further includeremoving heat from the beam dump at a rate of between about 10 kW to 700kW (e.g., about 25 kW to 500 kW, about 50 kW to about 400 kW, about 75kW to about 250 kW). For example, heat can be removed from the beam dumpby flowing a cooling fluid through channels disposed within the beamdump. Optionally, the fluid enters the channels through an inlet andexits the channels through an outlet at a temperature less than about140° C. (e.g., less than about, 120° C., less than about 110° C., lessthan about 105° C., less than about, 100° C., or even less than about80° C.).

Optionally, both a cooling enclosure and a beam dump may be present.These may both be located near or at the treatment zone. The coolingfluid used for the cooling enclosure may also be used in the beam dumpin any convenient arrangement. That is, the cooling fluid can flowsequentially and be put through the cooling enclosure first and the beamdump second or vice versa. Alternately, the fluid flow can be inparallel. Control systems can be used to optimize the use of the coolingfluid.

Cooling the conveyor during conveyance of materials, such as biomass,during irradiation is advantageous as this prevents overheating andpossible destruction or degradation of the conveying equipment. Also,the overheating of the biomass can be minimized; the charring or burningof the biomass can be minimized.

Implementations of the invention can optionally include one or more ofthe following summarized features. In some implementations, the selectedfeatures can be applied or utilized in any order while in othersimplementations a specific selected sequence is applied or utilized.Individual features can be applied or utilized more than once in anysequence. In addition, an entire sequence, or a portion of a sequence,of applied or utilized features can be applied or utilized once orrepeatedly in any order. In some optional implementations, the featurescan be applied or utilized with different, or where applicable the same,set or varied, quantitative or qualitative parameters as determined by aperson skilled in the art. For example, parameters of the features suchas size, individual dimensions (e.g., length, width, height), locationof, degree (e.g., to what extent such as the degree of recalcitrance),duration, frequency of use, density, concentration, intensity and speedcan be varied or set, where applicable as determined by a person ofskill in the art.

Features, for example, include a method conveying a material under anelectron beam, the method comprising: exposing a biomass material to anelectron beam while conveying the biomass material, on a trough of aconveyor. The conveyor vibrates to move the biomass and the trough ofthe conveyor is cooled and is made of metals, alloys or coated metals.The trough consists of two surfaces which are in thermal communicationand have a 1/64 to 2 inch separation between the two surfaces. Thesecond surface can be cooled with a cooling fluid. The cooling fluid canflow through a cooling enclosure which is in contact with the secondsurface. The cooling enclosure has inlets and outlets for the coolingfluid and the temperature difference between the inlet and outlets is 2to 120° C. with a flow rate of cooling liquid of 0.5 to 150 gallons perminute. The total electron beam power is at least 50 kW.

Furthermore, an embodiment of the invention is an apparatus which has anelectron beam irradiating device where the beam is directed at avibratory conveying device which has cooled trough. The trough has twosurfaces, one to support and convey the biomass and the second incontact with a cooling enclosure through which cooling fluid flows froman inlet to an outlet. The cooling enclosure can have channels throughwhich the cooling fluid flows. The trough can be made of metals, alloysof metals and coated metals. A factor in choosing the materials of thetrough is there corrosion resistance. The distance between the first andsecond surfaces of the trough is 1/64 to 2 inches.

An additional embodiment is a method conveying a material through afield of accelerated electrons, the electrons impinging upon a treatmentzone of a vibratory conveyor, wherein the treatment zone includes a beamdump in thermal communication with the treatment zone and can bepositioned on a side of the vibratory conveyor opposite the side of theimpinging electrons. Heat is removed from the beam dump at a rate of 10kW to 700 kW. The heat removal from the beam dump can be by a coolingfluid flowing through channels within the beam dump. The cooling fluidfor the channels of the beam dump flows through the channels and has anoutlet temperature of less than about 140° C.

An alternate embodiment is a method of conveying a material through afield of accelerated electrons, the electrons impinging upon thetreatment zone of a vibratory conveyor, wherein the treatment zoneincludes both a beam dump in thermal communication and a coolingenclosure in thermal communication with the treatment zone.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from thefollowing detailed description, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing will be apparent from the following more particulardescription of example embodiments of the invention, as illustrated inthe accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer tothe same parts throughout the different views.

The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placedupon illustrating embodiments of the present invention.

FIG. 1 is a side view of a system for irradiating a material with acooled conveyor.

FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the optionally trough for the conveyortrough for conveying biomass taken from above and shown in outline.

FIG. 3 is a perspective view of the conveyor taken from below.

FIG. 4A is a perspective view of the cooling exchanger taken from below.

FIG. 4B is a cross-sectional view of the cooling exchanger taken alongline 4B in FIG. 4A.

FIG. 5 is a perspective view of an enclosure that can be attachedbeneath the trough to cool the conveyors as they receive either director indirect radiation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Using the methods and systems described herein materials, such as,cellulosic and lignocellulosic feedstock materials, for example, thatcan be sourced from biomass (e.g., plant biomass, animal biomass, paper,and municipal waste biomass) and that are often readily available butdifficult to process, can be turned into useful products (e.g., sugarssuch as xylose and glucose, and alcohols such as ethanol and butanol).Included are methods and systems for cooling conveyors, or portionsthereof, and/or the biomass while they are being heated as a result ofirradiation.

Processes for manufacturing sugar solutions and products derivedtherefrom are described herein. These processes may include, forexample, optionally mechanically treating a cellulosic and/orlignocellulosic feedstock. Before and/or after this treatment, thefeedstock can be treated with another physical treatment, for exampleirradiation, steam explosion, pyrolysis, sonication and/or oxidation toreduce, or further reduce its recalcitrance. A sugar solution is formedby saccharifying the feedstock by, for example, the addition of one ormore enzymes. A product can be derived from the sugar solution, forexample, by fermentation to an alcohol. Further processing can includepurifying the solution, for example by distillation. If desired, thesteps of measuring lignin content and setting or adjusting processparameters (e.g., irradiation dosage) based on this measurement can beperformed at various stages of the process, for example, as described inU.S. application Ser. No. 12/704,519, filed on Feb. 11, 2011, thecomplete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

Several processes can occur in biomass when electrons from an electronbeam interact with matter in inelastic collisions, for example,ionization of the material, chain scission of polymers in the material,cross linking of polymers in the material, oxidation of the material,generation of X-rays (“Bremsstrahlung”) and vibrational excitation ofmolecules (e.g., phonon generation). Without being bound to a particularmechanism, the reduction in recalcitrance of the biomass can be due toseveral of these inelastic collision effects, for example ionization,chain scission of polymers, oxidation and phonon generation. Some of theeffects (e.g., especially X-ray generation), necessitate shielding andengineering barriers, for example, enclosing the irradiation processesin a concrete (or other radiation opaque material) vault. Another effectof irradiation, vibrational excitation, is equivalent to heating up thesample. Heating the sample by irradiation can help in recalcitrancereduction, but excessive heating can destroy the material, as will beexplained below.

The adiabatic temperature rise (ΔT) from adsorption of ionizingradiation is given by the equation: ΔT=D/Cp: where D is the average dosein kGy, Cp is the heat capacity in J/g° C., and ΔT is the change intemperature in ° C. A typical dry biomass material will have a heatcapacity close to 2. Wet biomass will have a higher heat capacitydependent on the amount of water since the heat capacity of water isvery high (4.19 J/g° C.). Metals have much lower heat capacities, forexample 304 stainless steel has a heat capacity of 0.5 J/g° C. Theadiabatic temperature rise from adsorption of ionizing radiation in adry biomass and in stainless steel for various doses of radiation isshown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Calculated Temperature increase for biomass and stainless steel.Dose (Mrad) Biomass ΔT (° C.) Steel ΔT (° C.) 10 50 200 50 250 1000 100500 2000 150 750 3000 200 1000 4000

High temperatures can destroy and/or modify the biopolymers in biomassso that the polymers (e.g., cellulose) are unsuitable for furtherprocessing. A biomass subjected to high temperatures can become dark,sticky and give off odors indicating decomposition. The stickiness caneven make the material hard to convey. The odors can be unpleasant andbe a safety issue. As a result, keeping the biomass below about 200° C.has been found to be beneficial in the processes described herein (e.g.,below about 190° C., below about 180° C., below about 170° C., belowabout 160° C., below about 150° C., below about 140° C., below about130° C., below about 120° C., below about 110° C., between about 60° C.and 180° C., between about 60° C. and 160° C., between about 60° C. and150° C., between about 60° C. and 140° C., between about 60° C. and 130°C., between about 60° C. and 120° C., between about 80° C. and 180° C.,between about 100° C. and 180° C., between about 120° C. and 180° C.,between about 140° C. and 180° C., between about 160° C. and 180° C.,between about 100° C. and 140° C., between about 80° C. and 120° C.).

It has been found that irradiation above about 10 Mrad is desirable forthe processes described herein (e.g., reduction of recalcitrance). Ahigh throughput is also desirable so that the irradiation does notbecome a bottle neck in processing the biomass. The treatment isgoverned by a Dose rate equation: M=FP/D*time, where M is the mass ofirradiated material (kg), F is the fraction of power that is adsorbed, Pis the emitted power (kW=Voltage in MeV*Current in mA), time is thetreatment time (sec) and D is the adsorbed dose (kGy). In an exemplaryprocess where the fraction of adsorbed power is fixed, the Power emittedis constant and a set dosage is desired, the throughput (e.g., M, thebiomass processed or any other material described herein) can beincreased by increasing the irradiation time. However, increasing theirradiation time without allowing the material to cool can excessivelyheat the material, as exemplified by the calculations shown above. Sincebiomass has a low thermal conductivity (less than about 0.1 Wm-1K-1),heat dissipation is slow, unlike, for example metals (greater than about10 Wm-1K-1), which can dissipate energy quickly as long as there is aheat sink to transfer the energy to. A solution to the aforementionedcontrasting issues, the need for a high radiation dose and rapidprocessing, without excessively heating the irradiated material, is tocool the biomass as it is being irradiated and conveyed.

FIG. 1 shows a side view of a system for irradiating biomass with acooled conveyor with the vibratory conveyor configuration shown. Thesystem includes an electron beam irradiation device 110, which issupported by a thick concrete and H-bar ceiling 120, for example asdisclosed in U.S. Provisional Application 61/774,744, filed Mar. 8,2013, the full disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.The electron beam irradiation device includes an electron accelerator112 and scan horn 114. The scan horn is disposed above a vibratoryconveyor 130 that conveys material under the scan horn from the left tothe right in the figure, as the conveyor oscillates generally in thedirection shown by the two headed arrows (some vibration also in and outof the page and up and down occur). The vibratory conveyor 130 ispreferably enclosed (e.g., includes a trough as will be discussed indetail below) and has windows, or cutouts, disposed to allow irradiationof the material. Conveyors and extraction windows are discussed in U.S.Provisional Application 61/711,801 U.S. Provisional Application61/711,807 both filed Oct. 10, 2012 the full disclosures of which areincorporated herein by reference. A cooling system including anenclosure (e.g., a beam dump) 140 for flowing a cooling agent, e.g., afluid or gas, beneath and in thermal contact (e.g., providing heatexchange) with the conveyor and conveyed material. The cooling agent canbe a gas or a liquid; preferably, the cooling agent includes water.Glycols such as ethylene glycol or propylene glycol can also be used.For example, the cooling agent may be an aqueous solution of a glycol,with glycol concentrations from 5 to 100% (at least 5%, at least 10%, atleast 15%, at least 20%, at least 25%, between 25-50%, between 50-75%,between 75-100%).

The flow rate of the cooling agent though the enclosure can be, forexample, between about 0.5 to 150 gallons/minute (e.g., about 1 to 10,10 to 30, 10 to 50, 50 to 100, 70 to 150, at least 20, at least 30, lessthan 100, less than 150 etc.). The cooling system is situated at alocation so as to cool the area of the conveyor that receives thehighest dose of radiation, either via irradiated biomass or directirradiation of the conveyor. Generally, this location is underneath thetrough directly below the scan horn. The dimensions of the coolingenclosure can be about 16 inches in length, 66 inches in width and 3.5inches in height where the length is measured in the direction ofconveying material on the trough. The enclosure can hold up to about 550cubic inches of cooling fluid. The dimensions of the trough above thecooling enclosure can be, e.g., 156 inches in length, 22.25 inches inwidth and 9.25 inches in height.

In some cases, for example as shown in FIG. 2, the cooling enclosure ispositioned adjacent to the trough portion of the conveyor. FIG. 2 is atop perspective view of a trough for conveying biomass shown in outline.The trough 210 is part of the vibratory conveyor discussed above, and,due to coupling to the oscillating systems of the conveyor, the troughgenerally oscillates in the direction indicated by the double-headedarrow. The trough can be made, for example, from aluminum or any alloysof steel including steel 316/316 L. Biomass 220 can be dropped onto thetrough surface 212, for example using a bias cut vibratory conveyor, atone end (the proximal end). Due to the oscillations of the trough, thebiomass is conveyed on surface 212 and under the electron beam as shownby 230. The irradiated biomass 222 continues to the other end of thetrough (the distal end) and drops off of the conveyor through arectangular opening 214 in the trough. Alternative openings includecircular, elliptical, slits (e.g., rectangular slits), an array of holes(e.g., circular holes, a mesh). Although not shown in FIG. 2, theconveyor can be a surface without sides and not have a troughconfiguration.

A funnel 322 (FIG. 3) is disposed beneath the opening to direct thetreated biomass to a collecting hopper and/or conveyor. The funnel canbe attached to the conveyor trough. A cooling enclosure 140 (e.g.,jacket and/or beam dump) is attached to the underside of the trough. Asdiscussed above, a cooling agent flows through the cooling enclosure tocool the biomass and conveyor. Cooling enclosure 140 (e.g., jacketand/or beam dump) has an inlet 224 through which fluid enters theenclosure (not shown in figure), and an outlet 226 through which coolingfluid exits the enclosure as shown in FIG. 2.

In some embodiments, the enclosure is configured to remove heat at arate of 10 kW to about 700, e.g., between about 25 kW to about 500 kW,from about 50 kW to about 400 kW or between about 75 kW to about 250 kW.

FIG. 3 is a bottom perspective view of the optional vibratory conveyor.A 2-headed arrow indicates the general direction of oscillation of theconveyor. The figure shows the cooling enclosure 140 with arrowsindicating the direction of the flow of the cooling agent inside theenclosure. Liquid or cooling gas enters from inlets located at 224 andexits from outlets located at 226. This view also shows the collectionfunnel 322 where the cooled and irradiated biomass is conveyed andsubsequently collected.

FIG. 4A is a bottom perspective view of the cooling enclosure, e.g., adimpled jacket heat exchanger plate, which can be made, for example ofaluminum, stainless steel 316/316 L, or other metal alloys withthickness range of about between 1/64″-2″, 1/64″-1″, 1/64″-½″, 1/32″-1″,1/32″-½″, 1/32″-¼″, 1/16″-1″, 1/64″-½″, 1/64″-¼″, 1/64″-⅛″, 1″-2″.Arrows indicate the direction of the flow of the cooling agent insidethe enclosure. The cooling agent, which could be a liquid or chilledgas, enters from inlets located at 224 and exits from outlets located at226. The cooling enclosure is in thermal contact with the conveyor,e.g., underneath, and conveyed biomass so that heat exchange can occur.Referring to FIGS. 4A and 4B, the heat exchanger 416 can have dimples414 (or welded points) which allow for increased surface area andprovide a torturous path to the cooling fluid which can lead to a moreefficient heat transfer from the conveyor to the cooling fluid.

FIG. 5 shows another embodiment of the cooling enclosure. In this case,the cooling agent flows through a tortuous cooling channel, rather thansimply flowing through an open enclosure. As shown in FIG. 5, liquidenters from inlet 224, flows through the cooling channel 226, which issupported on a planar substrate, and exits from outlet 512.

The difference in temperature of the cooling fluid near the inlet of theenclosure to the temperature near the outlet of the enclosure is betweenabout 2 to 120° C., (e.g., between about 2 to 30° C., between about 10to 50° C., between about 20 to 70° C., between about 30 to 90° C.,between about 40 to 110° C., between about 50 to 120° C.). The thermalgradient of the cooling system is also shown diagrammatically by thecircled numbers in FIG. 5 (1 being the coolest and 5 the warmesttemperature). Preferably, fluid, such as water glycol mixtures, exitingthe jacket, is less than 140° C., such as less than about 120° C., lessthan about 110° C., less than about 105° C., less than about 100° C. oreven less than about 80° C. The temperature of the area of the troughfacing (e.g., interior and/or surface temperatures) the irradiatingelectrons (e.g., in the irradiation zone) should remain below about1000° C. e.g., below about 500° C., below about 400° C., below about300° C., below about 200° C., below about 150° C. to avoid damaging thetrough e.g., through warping, oxidation, sintering, grain growth. Hightemperatures can occur any time there is no work piece e.g., materialsuch as biomass on the trough that is being irradiated, for exampleduring startup, shutdowns and disruptions in the flow of biomass. Lowertemperatures, for example below about 200° C. e.g., below about 150° C.,below about 140° C., below about 130° C., below about 120° C., belowabout 110° C., below about 100° C., below about 90° C., below about 80°C. are preferable when a biomass material is being conveyed across theirradiated zone (e.g., to avoid decomposition, charring). Otherembodiments of the cooling channel could be a U-tube exchanger or astraight tube exchanger with at least a one or two tube pass sides. Theconveyors (e.g., vibratory conveyor) can be made of corrosion resistantmaterials. The conveyors can utilize structural materials that includestainless steel (e.g., 304, 316 stainless steel, HASTELLOY® ALLOYS andINCONEL® Alloys). For example, HASTELLOY® Corrosion-Resistant alloysfrom Hynes (Kokomo, Ind., USA) such as HASTELLOY® B-3® ALLOY, HASTELLOY®HYBRID-BC1® ALLOY, HASTELLOY® C-4 ALLOY, HASTELLOY® C-22® ALLOY,HASTELLOY® C-22HS® ALLOY, HASTELLOY® C-276 ALLOY, HASTELLOY® C-2000®ALLOY, HASTELLOY® G-30® ALLOY, HASTELLOY® G-35® ALLOY, HASTELLOY® NALLOY and HASTELLOY® ULTIMET® alloy.

The vibratory conveyors can include non-stick release coatings, forexample, TUFFLON™ (Dupont, Delaware, USA). The vibratory conveyors canalso include corrosion resistant coatings. For example coatings that canbe supplied from Metal Coatings Corp (Houston, Tex., USA) and otherssuch as Fluoropolymer, XYLAN®, Molybdenum Disulfide, Epoxy Phenolic,Phosphate-ferrous metal coating, Polyurethane-high gloss topcoat forepoxy, inorganic zinc, Poly Tetrafluoro ethylene, PPS/RYTON®,fluorinated ethylene propylene, PVDF/DYKOR®, ECTFE/HALAR® and CeramicEpoxy Coating. The coatings can improve resistance to process gases(e.g., ozone), chemical corrosion, pitting corrosion, galling corrosionand oxidation.

The cooling jacket could also consist of a thermo electric system.Thermoelectric coolers operate by the Peltier effect or thermoelectriceffect. The device has two sides, and when DC current flows through thedevice, it brings heat from one side to the other, so that one side getscooler while the other gets hotter. The “hot” side is attached to a heatsink so that it remains at ambient temperature, while the cool side goesbelow room temperature. In some applications, multiple coolers can becascaded together for lower temperature.

The cooling component can be equipped with temperature and flow ratedetectors to maintain the desired range of temperature and flow rate ofthe cooling agent. The cooling fluid can also be recycled through achilling loop attached to the outlets and inlets of the coolingenclosure. The cooling enclosure could be welded/molded to the conveyoror be a removable unit, for example be mounted on rails or hinges andattached with fasteners.

In some embodiments, the cooling fluid is cooled by utilizing ageothermal loop, for example a closed geothermal loop or an opengeothermal loop. In addition, or alternatively, fluid (e.g., water) froma cooling tower can be utilized. Additionally, or alternatively, achiller, for example driven by a compressor (electric powered, gaspowered) can be utilized to chill down cooling fluid. Cooling systemscan be centralized and/or local systems, for example, a central coolingtower/geothermal loop can be combined with a smaller gas poweredchiller. Some cooling methods that can be utilized, for example,geothermal loops are described in U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No.61/774,735 the entire disclosure of which is herein incorporated byreference.

These cooling systems may be incorporated into the vibratory conveyordisclosed in US. Provisional Application 61/711,801 filed Oct. 10, 2012,the entire disclosure of which is herein incorporated by reference.

Radiation Treatment

The feedstock may be treated with electron bombardment to modify itsstructure and thereby reduce its recalcitrance. Such treatment may, forexample, reduce the average molecular weight of the feedstock, changethe crystalline structure of the feedstock, and/or increase the surfacearea and/or porosity of the feedstock.

Electron bombardment via an electron beam is generally preferred,because it provides very high throughput and because the use of arelatively low voltage/high power electron beam device reduces the needor thickness of expensive concrete vault shielding, as such devices are“self-shielded” and provide a safe, efficient process. Electron beamaccelerators are available, for example, from IBA, Belgium, and NHVCorporation, Japan.

Electron bombardment may be performed using an electron beam device thathas a nominal energy of less than 10 MeV, e.g., less than 7 MeV, lessthan 5 MeV, or less than 2 MeV, e.g., from about 0.5 to 1.5 MeV, fromabout 0.8 to 1.8 MeV, or from about 0.7 to 1 MeV. In someimplementations the nominal energy is about 500 to 800 keV.

The electron beam may have a relatively high total beam power (thecombined beam power of all accelerating heads, or, if multipleaccelerators are used, of all accelerators and all heads), e.g., atleast 25 kW, e.g., at least 30, 40, 50, 60, 65, 70, 80, 100, 125, or 150kW. In some cases, the power is even as high as 500 kW, 750 kW, or even1000 kW or more. In some cases the electron beam has a beam power of1200 kW or more. Alternately, the total beam power can be at least 50kW, at least 100, at least 250 kW or at least 500 kW.

This high total beam power is usually achieved by utilizing multipleaccelerating heads. For example, the electron beam device may includetwo, four, or more accelerating heads. The use of multiple heads, eachof which has a relatively low beam power, prevents excessive temperaturerise in the material, thereby preventing burning of the material, andalso increases the uniformity of the dose through the thickness of thelayer of material.

It is generally preferred that the bed of biomass material has arelatively uniform thickness. In some embodiments the thickness is lessthan about 1 inch (e.g., less than about 0.75 inches, less than about0.5 inches, less than about 0.25 inches, less than about 0.1 inches,between about 0.1 and 1 inch, between about 0.2 and 0.3 inches).

In some implementations, it is desirable to cool the material during andbetween dosing the material with electron bombardment. For example, thematerial can be cooled while it is conveyed, for example by a screwextruder, vibratory conveyor or other conveying equipment. For example,cooling while conveying is described in U.S. Provisional ApplicationNos. 61/774,735 and 61/774,752 both filed on Mar. 8, 2013 the entiredescription therein is herein incorporated by reference.

To reduce the energy required by the recalcitrance-reducing process, itis desirable to treat the material as quickly as possible. In general,it is preferred that treatment be performed at a dose rate of greaterthan about 0.25 Mrad per second, e.g., greater than about 0.5, 0.75, 1,1.5, 2, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, or even greater than about 20 Mrad per second,e.g., about 0.25 to 2 Mrad per second. Higher dose rates allow a higherthroughput for a target (e.g., the desired) dose. Higher dose ratesgenerally require higher line speeds, to avoid thermal decomposition ofthe material. In one implementation, the accelerator is set for 3 MeV,50 mA beam current, and the line speed is 24 feet/minute, for a samplethickness of about 20 mm (e.g., comminuted corn cob material with a bulkdensity of 0.5 g/cm3).

In some embodiments, electron bombardment is performed until thematerial receives a total dose of at least 5 Mrad, e.g., at least 10,20, 30 or at least 40 Mrad. In some embodiments, the treatment isperformed until the material receives a dose of from about 10 Mrad toabout 50 Mrad, e.g., from about 20 Mrad to about 40 Mrad, or from about25 Mrad to about 30 Mrad. In some implementations, a total dose of 25 to35 Mrad is preferred, applied ideally over a couple of seconds, e.g., at5 Mrad/pass with each pass being applied for about one second. Applyinga dose of greater than 7 to 8 Mrad/pass can in some cases cause thermaldegradation of the feedstock material. Cooling can be applied before,after, or during irradiation. For example, the cooling methods, systemsand equipment as described in the following applications can beutilized: U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 61/774,735 and 61/774,754,both filed Mar. 8, 2013, the entire disclosures of which are hereinincorporated by reference.

Using multiple heads as discussed above, the material can be treated inmultiple passes, for example, two passes at 10 to 20 Mrad/pass, e.g., 12to 18 Mrad/pass, separated by a few seconds of cool-down, or threepasses of 7 to 12 Mrad/pass, e.g., 9 to 11 Mrad/pass. As discussedherein, treating the material with several relatively low doses, ratherthan one high dose, tends to prevent overheating of the material andalso increases dose uniformity through the thickness of the material. Insome implementations, the material is stirred or otherwise mixed duringor after each pass and then smoothed into a uniform layer again beforethe next pass, to further enhance treatment uniformity.

In some embodiments, electrons are accelerated to, for example, a speedof greater than 75 percent of the speed of light, e.g., greater than 85,90, 95, or 99 percent of the speed of light.

In some embodiments, any processing described herein occurs onlignocellulosic material that remains dry as acquired or that has beendried, e.g., using heat and/or reduced pressure. For example, in someembodiments, the cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic material has lessthan about 25 wt. % retained water, measured at 25° C. and at fiftypercent relative humidity (e.g., less than about 20 wt. %, less thanabout 15 wt. %, less than about 10 wt. %, less than about 5 wt. %).

Electron bombardment can be applied while the cellulosic and/orlignocellulosic material is exposed to air, oxygen-enriched air, or evenoxygen itself, or blanketed by an inert gas such as nitrogen, argon, orhelium. When maximum oxidation is desired, an oxidizing environment isutilized, such as air or oxygen and the distance from the beam source isoptimized to maximize reactive gas formation, e.g., ozone and/or oxidesof nitrogen.

In some embodiments, two or more electron sources are used, such as twoor more ionizing sources. For example, samples can be treated, in anyorder, with a beam of electrons, followed by gamma radiation and UVlight having wavelengths from about 100 nm to about 280 nm. In someembodiments, samples are treated with three ionizing radiation sources,such as a beam of electrons, gamma radiation, and energetic UV light.The biomass is conveyed through the treatment zone where it can bebombarded with electrons.

It may be advantageous to repeat the treatment to more thoroughly reducethe recalcitrance of the biomass and/or further modify the biomass. Inparticular the process parameters can be adjusted after a first (e.g.,second, third, fourth or more) pass depending on the recalcitrance ofthe material. In some embodiments, a conveyor can be used which includesa circular system where the biomass is conveyed multiple times throughthe various processes described above. In some other embodiments,multiple treatment devices (e.g., electron beam generators) are used totreat the biomass multiple (e.g., 2, 3, 4 or more) times. In yet otherembodiments, a single electron beam generator may be the source ofmultiple beams (e.g., 2, 3, 4 or more beams) that can be used fortreatment of the biomass.

The effectiveness in changing the molecular/supermolecular structureand/or reducing the recalcitrance of the carbohydrate-containing biomassdepends on the electron energy used and the dose applied, while exposuretime depends on the power and dose. The dose rate and total dose must becarefully controlled so as not to destroy (e.g., char or burn) thebiomass material. For example, the carbohydrates should not be damagedin the processing so that they can be released from the biomass intact,e.g. as monomeric sugars.

In some embodiments, the treatment (with any electron source or acombination of sources) is performed until the material receives a doseof at least about 0.05 Mrad, e.g., at least about 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75,1.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100,125, 150, 175, or 200 Mrad. In some embodiments, the treatment isperformed until the material receives a dose of between 0.1-100 Mrad,1-200, 5-200, 10-200, 5-150, 50-150 Mrad, 5-100, 5-50, 5-40, 10-50,10-75, 15-50, 20-35 Mrad.

In some embodiments, the treatment is performed at a dose rate ofbetween 5 and 1500 kilorads/hour, e.g., between 10 and 750 kilorads/houror between 50 and 350 kilorads/hours. In other embodiments the treatmentis performed at a dose rate of between 10 and 10000 kilorads/hr.,between 100 and 1000 kilorads/hr., or between 500 and 1000 kilorads/hr.

In some embodiments, relatively low doses of radiation are utilized,e.g., to increase the molecular weight of a cellulosic orlignocellulosic material (with any radiation source or a combination ofsources described herein). For example, a dose of at least about 0.05Mrad, e.g., at least about 0.1 Mrad or at least about 0.25, 0.5, 0.75.1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, or at least about 5.0 Mrad. In someembodiments, the irradiation is performed until the material receives adose of between 0.1 Mrad and 2.0 Mrad, e.g., between 0.5 rad and 4.0Mrad or between 1.0 Mrad and 3.0 Mrad.

It also can be desirable to irradiate from multiple directions,simultaneously or sequentially, in order to achieve a desired degree ofpenetration of radiation into the material. For example, depending onthe density and moisture content of the material, such as wood, and thetype of radiation source used (e.g., gamma or electron beam), themaximum penetration of radiation into the material may be only about0.75 inch. In such a cases, a thicker section (up to 1.5 inch) can beirradiated by first irradiating the material from one side, and thenturning the material over and irradiating from the other side.Irradiation from multiple directions can be particularly useful withelectron beam radiation, which irradiates faster than gamma radiationbut typically does not achieve as great a penetration depth.

Radiation Opaque Materials

The invention can include processing the material in a vault and/orbunker that is constructed using radiation opaque materials. In someimplementations, the radiation opaque materials are selected to becapable of shielding the components from X-rays with high energy (shortwavelength), which can penetrate many materials. One important factor indesigning a radiation shielding enclosure is the attenuation length ofthe materials used, which will determine the required thickness for aparticular material, blend of materials, or layered structure. Theattenuation length is the penetration distance at which the radiation isreduced to approximately 1/e (e=Euler's number) times that of theincident radiation. Although virtually all materials are radiationopaque if thick enough, materials containing a high compositionalpercentage (e.g., density) of elements that have a high Z value (atomicnumber) have a shorter radiation attenuation length and thus if suchmaterials are used a thinner, lighter shielding can be provided.Examples of high Z value materials that are used in radiation shieldingare tantalum and lead. Another important parameter in radiationshielding is the halving distance, which is the thickness of aparticular material that will reduce gamma ray intensity by 50%. As anexample for X-ray radiation with an energy of 0.1 MeV the halvingthickness is about 15.1 mm for concrete and about 0.27 mm for lead,while with an X-ray energy of 1 MeV the halving thickness for concreteis about 44.45 mm and for lead is about 7.9 mm Radiation opaquematerials can be materials that are thick or thin so long as they canreduce the radiation that passes through to the other side. Thus, if itis desired that a particular enclosure have a low wall thickness, e.g.,for light weight or due to size constraints, the material chosen shouldhave a sufficient Z value and/or attenuation length so that its halvinglength is less than or equal to the desired wall thickness of theenclosure.

In some cases, the radiation opaque material may be a layered material,for example having a layer of a higher Z value material, to provide goodshielding, and a layer of a lower Z value material to provide otherproperties (e.g., structural integrity, impact resistance, etc.). Insome cases, the layered material may be a “graded-Z” laminate, e.g.,including a laminate in which the layers provide a gradient from high-Zthrough successively lower-Z elements. In some cases the radiationopaque materials can be interlocking blocks, for example, lead and/orconcrete blocks can be supplied by NELCO Worldwide (Burlington, Mass.),and reconfigurable vaults can be utilized as described in U.S.Provisional Application No. 61/774,744.

A radiation opaque material can reduce the radiation passing through astructure (e.g., a wall, door, ceiling, enclosure, a series of these orcombinations of these) formed of the material by about at least about10%, (e.g., at least about 20%, at least about 30%, at least about 40%,at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at leastabout 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 96%,at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, at leastabout 99.9%, at least about 99.99%, at least about 99.999%) as comparedto the incident radiation. Therefore, an enclosure made of a radiationopaque material can reduce the exposure of equipment/system/componentsby the same amount. Radiation opaque materials can include stainlesssteel, metals with Z values above 25 (e.g., lead, iron), concrete, dirt,sand and combinations thereof. Radiation opaque materials can include abarrier in the direction of the incident radiation of at least about 1mm (e.g., 5 mm, 10 mm, 5 cm, 10 cm, 100 cm, 1 m, 10 m).

Radiation Sources

The type of radiation determines the kinds of radiation sources used aswell as the radiation devices and associated equipment. The methods,systems and equipment described herein, for example for treatingmaterials with radiation, can utilized sources as described herein aswell as any other useful source.

Sources of gamma rays include radioactive nuclei, such as isotopes ofcobalt, calcium, technicium, chromium, gallium, indium, iodine, iron,krypton, samarium, selenium, sodium, thalium, and xenon.

Sources of X-rays include electron beam collision with metal targets,such as tungsten or molybdenum or alloys, or compact light sources, suchas those produced commercially by Lyncean.

Alpha particles are identical to the nucleus of a helium atom and areproduced by the alpha decay of various radioactive nuclei, such asisotopes of bismuth, polonium, astatine, radon, francium, radium,several actinides, such as actinium, thorium, uranium, neptunium,curium, californium, americium, and plutonium.

Sources for ultraviolet radiation include deuterium or cadmium lamps.

Sources for infrared radiation include sapphire, zinc, or selenidewindow ceramic lamps.

Sources for microwaves include klystrons, Slevin type RF sources, oratom beam sources that employ hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen gases.

Accelerators used to accelerate the particles (e.g., electrons or ions)can be electrostatic DC, e. g., electrodynamic DC, RF linear, magneticinduction linear or continuous wave. For example, various irradiatingdevices may be used in the methods disclosed herein, including fieldionization sources, electrostatic ion separators, field ionizationgenerators, thermionic emission sources, microwave discharge ionsources, recirculating or static accelerators, dynamic linearaccelerators, van de Graaff accelerators, Cockroft Walton accelerators(e.g., PELLETRON® accelerators), LINACS, Dynamitrons (e.g, DYNAMITRON®accelerators), cyclotrons, synchrotrons, betatrons, transformer-typeaccelerators, microtrons, plasma generators, cascade accelerators, andfolded tandem accelerators. For example, cyclotron type accelerators areavailable from IBA, Belgium, such as the RHODOTRON™ system, while DCtype accelerators are available from RDI, now IBA Industrial, such asthe DYNAMITRON®. Other suitable accelerator systems include, forexample: DC insulated core transformer (ICT) type systems, availablefrom Nissin High Voltage, Japan; S-band LINACs, available from L3-PSD(USA), Linac Systems (France), Mevex (Canada), and Mitsubishi HeavyIndustries (Japan); L-band LINACs, available from Iotron Industries(Canada); and ILU-based accelerators, available from Budker Laboratories(Russia). Ions and ion accelerators are discussed in IntroductoryNuclear Physics, Kenneth S. Krane, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1988), KrstoPrelec, FIZIKA B 6 (1997) 4, 177-206, Chu, William T., “Overview ofLight-Ion Beam Therapy”, Columbus-Ohio, ICRU-IAEA Meeting, 18-20 Mar.2006, Iwata, Y. et al., “Alternating-Phase-Focused IH-DTL for Heavy-IonMedical Accelerators”, Proceedings of EPAC 2006, Edinburgh, Scotland,and Leitner, C. M. et al., “Status of the Superconducting ECR Ion SourceVenus”, Proceedings of EPAC 2000, Vienna, Austria. Some particleaccelerators and their uses are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No.7,931,784 to Medoff, the complete disclosure of which is incorporatedherein by reference.

Electrons may be produced by radioactive nuclei that undergo beta decay,such as isotopes of iodine, cesium, technetium, and iridium.Alternatively, an electron gun can be used as an electron source viathermionic emission and accelerated through an accelerating potential.An electron gun generates electrons, which are then accelerated througha large potential (e.g., greater than about 500 thousand, greater thanabout 1 million, greater than about 2 million, greater than about 5million, greater than about 6 million, greater than about 7 million,greater than about 8 million, greater than about 9 million, or evengreater than 10 million volts) and then scanned magnetically in the x-yplane, where the electrons are initially accelerated in the z directiondown the accelerator tube and extracted through a foil window. Scanningthe electron beams is useful for increasing the irradiation surface whenirradiating materials, e.g., a biomass, that is conveyed through thescanned beam. Scanning the electron beam also distributes the thermalload homogenously on the window and helps reduce the foil window rupturedue to local heating by the electron beam. Window foil rupture is acause of significant down-time due to subsequent necessary repairs andre-starting the electron gun.

A beam of electrons can be used as the radiation source. A beam ofelectrons has the advantages of high dose rates (e.g., 1, 5, or even 10Mrad per second), high throughput, less containment, and lessconfinement equipment. Electron beams can also have high electricalefficiency (e.g., 80%), allowing for lower energy usage relative toother radiation methods, which can translate into a lower cost ofoperation and lower greenhouse gas emissions corresponding to thesmaller amount of energy used. Electron beams can be generated, e.g., byelectrostatic generators, cascade generators, transformer generators,low energy accelerators with a scanning system, low energy acceleratorswith a linear cathode, linear accelerators, and pulsed accelerators.

Electrons can also be more efficient at causing changes in the molecularstructure of carbohydrate-containing materials, for example, by themechanism of chain scission. In addition, electrons having energies of0.5-10 MeV can penetrate low density materials, such as the biomassmaterials described herein, e.g., materials having a bulk density ofless than 0.5 g/cm3, and a depth of 0.3-10 cm. Electrons as an ionizingradiation source can be useful, e.g., for relatively thin piles, layersor beds of materials, e.g., less than about 0.5 inch, e.g., less thanabout 0.4 inch, 0.3 inch, 0.25 inch, or less than about 0.1 inch. Insome embodiments, the energy of each electron of the electron beam isfrom about 0.3 MeV to about 2.0 MeV (million electron volts), e.g., fromabout 0.5 MeV to about 1.5 MeV, or from about 0.7 MeV to about 1.25 MeV.Methods of irradiating materials are discussed in U.S. Pat. App. Pub.2012/0100577 A1, filed Oct. 18, 2011, the entire disclosure of which isherein incorporated by reference.

Electron beam irradiation devices may be procured commercially or built.For example elements or components such inductors, capacitors, casings,power sources, cables, wiring, voltage control systems, current controlelements, insulating material, microcontrollers and cooling equipmentcan be purchased and assembled into a device. Optionally, a commercialdevice can be modified and/or adapted. For example, devices andcomponents can be purchased from any of the commercial sources describedherein including Ion Beam Applications (Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium), NHVCorporation (Japan), the Titan Corporation (San Diego, Calif.), ViviradHigh Voltage Corp (Billeric, Mass.) and/or Budker Laboratories (Russia).Typical electron energies can be 0.5 MeV, 1 MeV, 2 MeV, 4.5 MeV, 7.5MeV, or 10 MeV. Typical electron beam irradiation device power can be 1kW, 5 kW, 10 kW, 20 kW, 50 kW, 60 kW, 70 kW, 80 kW, 90 kW, 100 kW, 125kW, 150 kW, 175 kW, 200 kW, 250 kW, 300 kW, 350 kW, 400 kW, 450 kW, 500kW, 600 kW, 700 kW, 800 kW, 900 kW or even 1000 kW. Accelerators thatcan be used include NHV irradiators medium energy series EPS-500 (e.g.,500 kV accelerator voltage and 65, 100 or 150 mA beam current), EPS-800(e.g., 800 kV accelerator voltage and 65 or 100 mA beam current), orEPS-1000 (e.g., 1000 kV accelerator voltage and 65 or 100 mA beamcurrent). Also, accelerators from NHV's high energy series can be usedsuch as EPS-1500 (e.g., 1500 kV accelerator voltage and 65 mA beamcurrent), EPS-2000 (e.g., 2000 kV accelerator voltage and 50 mA beamcurrent), EPS-3000 (e.g., 3000 kV accelerator voltage and 50 mA beamcurrent) and EPS-5000 (e.g., 5000 and 30 mA beam current).

Tradeoffs in considering electron beam irradiation device powerspecifications include cost to operate, capital costs, depreciation, anddevice footprint. Tradeoffs in considering exposure dose levels ofelectron beam irradiation would be energy costs and environment, safety,and health (ESH) concerns. Typically, generators are housed in a vault,e.g., of lead or concrete, especially for production from X-rays thatare generated in the process. Tradeoffs in considering electron energiesinclude energy costs.

The electron beam irradiation device can produce either a fixed beam ora scanning beam. A scanning beam may be advantageous with large scansweep length and high scan speeds, as this would effectively replace alarge, fixed beam width. Further, available sweep widths of 0.5 m, 1 m,2 m or more are available. The scanning beam is preferred in mostembodiments describe herein because of the larger scan width and reducedpossibility of local heating and failure of the windows.

Electron Guns—Windows

The extraction system for an electron accelerator can include two windowfoils. Window foils are described in U.S. Provisional Application Ser.No. 61/711,801 filed Oct. 10, 2012 the complete disclosure of which isherein incorporated by reference. The cooling gas in the two foil windowextraction system can be a purge gas or a mixture, for example air, or apure gas. In one embodiment the gas is an inert gas such as nitrogen,argon, helium and or carbon dioxide. It is preferred to use a gas ratherthan a liquid since energy losses to the electron beam are minimizedMixtures of pure gas can also be used, either pre-mixed or mixed in lineprior to impinging on the windows or in the space between the windows.The cooling gas can be cooled, for example, by using a heat exchangesystem (e.g., a chiller) and/or by using boil off from a condensed gas(e.g., liquid nitrogen, liquid helium).

When using an enclosure, the enclosed conveyor can also be purged withan inert gas so as to maintain an atmosphere at a reduced oxygen level.Keeping oxygen levels low avoids the formation of ozone, which in someinstances is undesirable due to its reactive and toxic nature. Forexample, the oxygen can be less than about 20% (e.g., less than about10%, less than about 1%, less than about 0.1%, less than about 0.01%, oreven less than about 0.001% oxygen). Purging can be done with an inertgas including, but not limited to, nitrogen, argon, helium or carbondioxide. This can be supplied, for example, from a boil off of a liquidsource (e.g., liquid nitrogen or helium), generated or separated fromair in situ, or supplied from tanks. The inert gas can be recirculatedand any residual oxygen can be removed using a catalyst, such as acopper catalyst bed. Alternatively, combinations of purging,recirculating and oxygen removal can be done to keep the oxygen levelslow.

The enclosure can also be purged with a reactive gas that can react withthe biomass. This can be done before, during or after the irradiationprocess. The reactive gas can be, but is not limited to, nitrous oxide,ammonia, oxygen, ozone, hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds, amides,peroxides, azides, halides, oxyhalides, phosphides, phosphines, arsines,sulfides, thiols, boranes and/or hydrides. The reactive gas can beactivated in the enclosure, e.g., by irradiation (e.g., electron beam,UV irradiation, microwave irradiation, heating, IR radiation), so thatit reacts with the biomass. The biomass itself can be activated, forexample by irradiation. Preferably the biomass is activated by theelectron beam, to produce radicals, which then react with the activatedor unactivated reactive gas, e.g., by radical coupling or quenching.

Purging gases supplied to an enclosed conveyor can also be cooled, forexample below about 25° C., below about 0° C., below about −40° C.,below about −80° C., below about −120° C. For example, the gas can beboiled off from a compressed gas such as liquid nitrogen or sublimedfrom solid carbon dioxide. As an alternative example, the gas can becooled by a chiller or part of or the entire conveyor can be cooled.

Electron Guns—Beam Stops

In some embodiments the systems and methods include a beam stop (e.g., ashutter). For example, the beam stop can be used to quickly stop orreduce the irradiation of material without powering down the electronbeam device. Alternatively the beam stop can be used while powering upthe electron beam, e.g., the beam stop can stop the electron beam untila beam current of a desired level is achieved. The beam stop can beplaced between the primary foil window and a secondary foil window. Forexample the beam stop can be mounted so that it is movable, that is, sothat it can be moved into and out of the beam path. Even partialcoverage of the beam can be used, for example, to control the dose ofirradiation. The beam stop can be mounted to the floor, to a conveyorfor the biomass, to a wall, to the radiation device (e.g., at the scanhorn), or to any structural support. Preferably, the beam stop is fixedin relation to the scan horn so that the beam can be effectivelycontrolled by the beam stop. The beam stop can incorporate a hinge, arail, wheels, slots, or other means allowing for its operation in movinginto and out of the beam. The beam stop can be made of any material thatwill stop at least 5% of the electrons, e.g., at least 10%, 20%, 30%,40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, at least 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%,96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or even about 100% of the electrons.

The beam stop can be made of a metal including, but not limited to,stainless steel, lead, iron, molybdenum, silver, gold, titanium,aluminum, tin, or alloys of these, or laminates (layered materials) madewith such metals (e.g., metal-coated ceramic, metal-coated polymer,metal-coated composite, multilayered metal materials).

The beam stop can be cooled, for example, with a cooling fluid such asan aqueous solution or a gas. The beam stop can be partially orcompletely hollow, for example with cavities. Interior spaces of thebeam stop can be used for cooling fluids and gases. The beam stop can beof any shape, including flat, curved, round, oval, square, rectangular,beveled and wedged shapes.

The beam stop can have perforations so as to allow some electronsthrough, thus controlling (e.g., reducing) the levels of radiationacross the whole area of the window, or in specific regions of thewindow. The beam stop can be a mesh formed, for example, from fibers orwires. Multiple beam stops can be used, together or independently, tocontrol the irradiation. The beam stop can be remotely controlled, e.g.,by radio signal or hard wired to a motor or other device for moving thebeam into or out of position.

Biomass Materials

Lignocellulosic materials include, but are not limited to, wood,particle board, forestry wastes (e.g., sawdust, aspen wood, wood chips),grasses, (e.g., switchgrass, miscanthus, cord grass, reed canary grass),grain residues, (e.g., rice hulls, oat hulls, wheat chaff, barleyhulls), agricultural waste (e.g., silage, canola straw, wheat straw,barley straw, oat straw, rice straw, jute, hemp, flax, bamboo, sisal,abaca, corn cobs, corn stover, soybean stover, corn fiber, alfalfa, hay,coconut hair), sugar processing residues (e.g., bagasse, beet pulp,agave bagasse), algae, seaweed, manure, sewage, and mixtures of any ofthese.

In some cases, the lignocellulosic material includes corncobs. Ground orhammer milled corncobs can be spread in a layer of relatively uniformthickness for irradiation, and after irradiation are easy to disperse inthe medium for further processing. To facilitate harvest and collection,in some cases the entire corn plant is used, including the corn stalk,corn kernels, and in some cases even the root system of the plant.

Advantageously, no additional nutrients (other than a nitrogen source,e.g., urea or ammonia) are required during fermentation of corncobs orcellulosic or lignocellulosic materials containing significant amountsof corncobs.

Corncobs, before and after comminution, are also easier to convey anddisperse, and have a lesser tendency to form explosive mixtures in airthan other cellulosic or lignocellulosic materials such as hay andgrasses.

Cellulosic materials include, for example, paper, paper products, paperwaste, paper pulp, pigmented papers, loaded papers, coated papers,filled papers, magazines, printed matter (e.g., books, catalogs,manuals, labels, calendars, greeting cards, brochures, prospectuses,newsprint), printer paper, polycoated paper, card stock, cardboard,paperboard, materials having a high (-cellulose content such as cotton,and mixtures of any of these. For example, paper products as describedin U.S. application Ser. No. 13/396,365 (“Magazine Feedstocks” by Medoffet al., filed Feb. 14, 2012), the full disclosure of which isincorporated herein by reference.

Cellulosic materials can also include lignocellulosic materials, whichhave been partially or fully de-lignified.

In some instances other biomass materials can be utilized, for examplestarchy materials. Starchy materials include starch itself, e.g.,cornstarch, wheat starch, potato starch or rice starch, a derivative ofstarch, or a material that includes starch, such as an edible foodproduct or a crop. For example, the starchy material can be arracacha,buckwheat, banana, barley, cassava, kudzu, oca, sago, sorghum, regularhousehold potatoes, sweet potato, taro, yams, or one or more beans, suchas favas, lentils or peas. Blends of any two or more starchy materialsare also starchy materials. Mixtures of starchy, cellulosic and orlignocellulosic materials can also be used. For example, a biomass canbe an entire plant, a part of a plant or different parts of a plant,e.g., a wheat plant, cotton plant, a corn plant, rice plant or a tree.The starchy materials can be treated by any of the methods describedherein.

Microbial materials include, but are not limited to, any naturallyoccurring or genetically modified microorganism or organism thatcontains or is capable of providing a source of carbohydrates (e.g.,cellulose), for example, protists, e.g., animal protists (e.g., protozoasuch as flagellates, amoeboids, ciliates, and sporozoa) and plantprotists (e.g., algae such alveolates, chlorarachniophytes,cryptomonads, euglenids, glaucophytes, haptophytes, red algae,stramenopiles, and viridaeplantae). Other examples include seaweed,plankton (e.g., macroplankton, mesoplankton, microplankton,nanoplankton, picoplankton, and femptoplankton), phytoplankton, bacteria(e.g., gram positive bacteria, gram negative bacteria, andextremophiles), yeast and/or mixtures of these. In some instances,microbial biomass can be obtained from natural sources, e.g., the ocean,lakes, bodies of water, e.g., salt water or fresh water, or on land.Alternatively or in addition, microbial biomass can be obtained fromculture systems, e.g., large-scale dry and wet culture and fermentationsystems.

In other embodiments, the biomass materials, such as cellulosic, starchyand lignocellulosic feedstock materials, can be obtained from transgenicmicroorganisms and plants that have been modified with respect to a wildtype variety. Such modifications may be, for example, through theiterative steps of selection and breeding to obtain desired traits in aplant. Furthermore, the plants can have had genetic material removed,modified, silenced and/or added with respect to the wild type variety.For example, genetically modified plants can be produced by recombinantDNA methods, where genetic modifications include introducing ormodifying specific genes from parental varieties, or, for example, byusing transgenic breeding wherein a specific gene or genes areintroduced to a plant from a different species of plant and/or bacteria.Another way to create genetic variation is through mutation breedingwherein new alleles are artificially created from endogenous genes. Theartificial genes can be created by a variety of ways including treatingthe plant or seeds with, for example, chemical mutagens (e.g., usingalkylating agents, epoxides, alkaloids, peroxides, formaldehyde),irradiation (e.g., X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, beta particles, alphaparticles, protons, deuterons, UV radiation) and temperature shocking orother external stressing and subsequent selection techniques. Othermethods of providing modified genes are through error prone PCR and DNAshuffling followed by insertion of the desired modified DNA into thedesired plant or seed. Methods of introducing the desired geneticvariation in the seed or plant include, for example, the use of abacterial carrier, biolistics, calcium phosphate precipitation,electroporation, gene splicing, gene silencing, lipofection,microinjection and viral carriers. Additional genetically modifiedmaterials have been described in U.S. application Ser. No. 13/396,369filed Feb. 14, 2012 the full disclosure of which is incorporated hereinby reference.

Any of the methods described herein can be practiced with mixtures ofany biomass materials described herein.

Other Materials

Other materials (e.g., natural or synthetic materials), for examplepolymers, can be treated and/or made utilizing the methods, equipmentand systems described herein. For example polyethylene (e.g., linear lowdensity ethylene and high density polyethylene), polystyrenes,sulfonated polystyrenes, poly(vinyl chlorides), poly (vinyl chloride),polyesters (e.g., nylons, Dacron™, Kodel™), polyalkylene esters, polyvinyl esters, polyamides (e.g., Kevlar™), polyethylene terephthalate,cellulose acetate, acetal, polyacrylonitrile, polycarbonates (Lexan™),acrylics [e.g., poly (methyl methacrylate), poly(methyl methacrylate),polyacrylnitriles], Poly urethanes, polypropylene, poly butadiene,polyisobutylene, polyacrylonitrile, polychloroprene (e.g. neoprene),poly(cis-1,4-isoprene) [e.g., natural rubber], poly(trans-1,4-isoprene)[e.g., gutta percha], phenol formaldehyde, melamine formaldehyde,epoxides, polyesters, poly amines, polycarboxylic acids, polylacticacids, polyvinyl alcohols, polyanhydrides, poly fluoro carbons (e.g.,Teflon™), silicons (e.g., silicone rubber), polysilanes, poly ethers(e.g., polyethylene oxide, polypropylene oxide), waxes, oils andmixtures of these. Also included are plastics, rubbers, elastomers,fibers, waxes, gels, oils, adhesives, thermoplastics, thermosets,biodegradable polymers, resins made with these polymers, other polymers,other materials and combinations thereof. The polymers can be made byany useful method including cationic polymerization, anionicpolymerization, radical polymerization, metathesis polymerization, ringopening polymerization, graft polymerization, addition polymerization.In some cases the treatments disclosed herein can be used, for example,for radically initiated graft polymerization and cross linking.Composites of polymers, for example with glass, metals, biomass (e.g.,fibers, particles), ceramics can also be treated and/or made.

Other materials that can be treated by using the methods, systems andequipment disclosed herein are ceramic materials, minerals, metals,inorganic compounds. For example, silicon and germanium crystals,silicon nitrides, metal oxides, semiconductors, insulators, cements andor conductors.

In addition, manufactured multipart or shaped materials (e.g., molded,extruded, welded, riveted, layered or combined in any way) can betreated, for example cables, pipes, boards, enclosures, integratedsemiconductor chips, circuit boards, wires, tires, windows, laminatedmaterials, gears, belts, machines, combinations of these. For example,treating a material by the methods described herein can modify thesurfaces, for example, making them susceptible to furtherfunctionalization, combinations (e.g., welding) and/or treatment cancross link the materials.

Biomass Material Preparation—Mechanical Treatments

The biomass can be in a dry form, for example with less than about 35%moisture content (e.g., less than about 20%, less than about 15%, lessthan about 10% less than about 5%, less than about 4%, less than about3%, less than about 2% or even less than about 1%). The biomass can alsobe delivered in a wet state, for example as a wet solid, a slurry or asuspension with at least about 10 wt. % solids (e.g., at least about 20wt. %, at least about 30 wt. %, at least about 40 wt. %, at least about50 wt. %, at least about 60 wt. %, at least about 70 wt. %).

The processes disclosed herein can utilize low bulk density materials,for example cellulosic or lignocellulosic feedstocks that have beenphysically pretreated to have a bulk density of less than about 0.75g/cm3, e.g., less than about 0.7, 0.65, 0.60, 0.50, 0.35, 0.25, 0.20,0.15, 0.10, 0.05 or less, e.g., less than about 0.025 g/cm3. Bulkdensity is determined using ASTM D1895B. Briefly, the method involvesfilling a measuring cylinder of known volume with a sample and obtaininga weight of the sample. The bulk density is calculated by dividing theweight of the sample in grams by the known volume of the cylinder incubic centimeters. If desired, low bulk density materials can bedensified, for example, by methods described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,971,809to Medoff, the full disclosure of which is hereby incorporated byreference.

In some cases, the pre-treatment processing includes screening of thebiomass material. Screening can be through a mesh or perforated platewith a desired opening size, for example, less than about 6.35 mm (¼inch, 0.25 inch), (e.g., less than about 3.18 mm (⅛ inch, 0.125 inch),less than about 1.59 mm ( 1/16 inch, 0.0625 inch), is less than about0.79 mm ( 1/32 inch, 0.03125 inch), e.g., less than about 0.51 mm ( 1/50inch, 0.02000 inch), less than about 0.40 mm ( 1/64 inch, 0.015625inch), less than about 0.23 mm (0.009 inch), less than about 0.20 mm (1/128 inch, 0.0078125 inch), less than about 0.18 mm (0.007 inch), lessthan about 0.13 mm (0.005 inch), or even less than about 0.10 mm ( 1/256inch, 0.00390625 inch)). In one configuration the desired biomass fallsthrough the perforations or screen and thus biomass larger than theperforations or screen are not irradiated. These larger materials can bere-processed, for example, by comminuting, or they can simply be removedfrom processing. In another configuration material that is larger thanthe perforations is irradiated and the smaller material is removed bythe screening process or recycled. In this kind of a configuration, theconveyor itself (for example a part of the conveyor) can be perforatedor made with a mesh. For example, in one particular embodiment thebiomass material may be wet and the perforations or mesh allow water todrain away from the biomass before irradiation.

Screening of material can also be by a manual method, for example by anoperator or mechanoid (e.g., a robot equipped with a color, reflectivityor other sensor) that removes unwanted material. Screening can also beby magnetic screening wherein a magnet is disposed near the conveyedmaterial and the magnetic material is removed magnetically.

Optional pre-treatment processing can include heating the material. Forexample a portion of the conveyor can be sent through a heated zone. Theheated zone can be created, for example, by IR radiation, microwaves,combustion (e.g., gas, coal, oil, biomass), resistive heating and/orinductive coils. The heat can be applied from at least one side or morethan one side, can be continuous or periodic and can be for only aportion of the material or all the material. For example, a portion ofthe conveying trough can be heated by use of a heating jacket. Heatingcan be, for example, for the purpose of drying the material. In the caseof drying the material, this can also be facilitated, with or withoutheating, by the movement of a gas (e.g., air, oxygen, nitrogen, He, CO2,Argon) over and/or through the biomass as it is being conveyed.

Optionally, pre-treatment processing can include cooling the material.Cooling material is described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,900,857 to Medoff, thedisclosure of which in incorporated herein by reference. For example,cooling can be by supplying a cooling fluid, for example water (e.g.,with glycerol), or nitrogen (e.g., liquid nitrogen) to the bottom of theconveying trough. Alternatively, a cooling gas, for example, chillednitrogen can be blown over the biomass materials or under the conveyingsystem.

Another optional pre-treatment processing method can include adding amaterial to the biomass. The additional material can be added by, forexample, by showering, sprinkling and or pouring the material onto thebiomass as it is conveyed. Materials that can be added include, forexample, metals, ceramics and/or ions as described in U.S. Pat. App.Pub. 2010/0105119 A1 (filed Oct. 26, 2009) and U.S. Pat. App. Pub.2010/0159569 A1 (filed Dec. 16, 2009), the entire disclosures of whichare incorporated herein by reference. Optional materials that can beadded include acids and bases. Other materials that can be added areoxidants (e.g., peroxides, chlorates), polymers, polymerizable monomers(e.g., containing unsaturated bonds), water, catalysts, enzymes and/ororganisms. Materials can be added, for example, in pure form, as asolution in a solvent (e.g., water or an organic solvent) and/or as asolution. In some cases the solvent is volatile and can be made toevaporate e.g., by heating and/or blowing gas as previously described.The added material may form a uniform coating on the biomass or be ahomogeneous mixture of different components (e.g., biomass andadditional material). The added material can modulate the subsequentirradiation step by increasing the efficiency of the irradiation,damping the irradiation or changing the effect of the irradiation (e.g.,from electron beams to X-rays or heat). The method may have no impact onthe irradiation but may be useful for further downstream processing. Theadded material may help in conveying the material, for example, bylowering dust levels.

Biomass can be delivered to the conveyor (e.g., the vibratory conveyorsused in the vaults herein described) by a belt conveyor, a pneumaticconveyor, a screw conveyor, a hopper, a pipe, manually or by acombination of these. The biomass can, for example, be dropped, pouredand/or placed onto the conveyor by any of these methods. In someembodiments the material is delivered to the conveyor using an enclosedmaterial distribution system to help maintain a low oxygen atmosphereand/or control dust and fines. Lofted or air suspended biomass fines anddust are undesirable because these can form an explosion hazard ordamage the window foils of an electron gun (if such a device is used fortreating the material).

The material can be leveled to form a uniform thickness between about0.0312 and 5 inches (e.g., between about 0.0625 and 2.000 inches,between about 0.125 and 1 inches, between about 0.125 and 0.5 inches,between about 0.3 and 0.9 inches, between about 0.2 and 0.5 inchesbetween about 0.25 and 1.0 inches, between about 0.25 and 0.5 inches.

Generally, it is preferred to convey the material as quickly as possiblethrough the electron beam to maximize throughput. For example, thematerial can be conveyed at rates of at least 1 ft./min, e.g., at least2 ft./min, at least 3 ft./min, at least 4 ft./min, at least 5 ft./min,at least 10 ft./min, at least 15 ft./min, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50ft./min. The rate of conveying is related to the beam current, forexample, for a ¼ inch thick biomass and 100 mA, the conveyor can move atabout 20 ft./min to provide a useful irradiation dosage, at 50 mA theconveyor can move at about 10 ft./min to provide approximately the sameirradiation dosage.

After the biomass material has been conveyed through the radiation zone,optional post-treatment processing can be done. The optionalpost-treatment processing can, for example, be a process described withrespect to the pre-irradiation processing. For example, the biomass canbe screened, heated, cooled, and/or combined with additives. Uniquely topost-irradiation, quenching of the radicals can occur, for example,quenching of radicals by the addition of fluids or gases (e.g., oxygen,nitrous oxide, ammonia, liquids), using pressure, heat, and/or theaddition of radical scavengers. For example, the biomass can be conveyedout of the enclosed conveyor and exposed to a gas (e.g., oxygen) whereit is quenched, forming carboxylated groups. In one embodiment thebiomass is exposed during irradiation to the reactive gas or fluid.Quenching of biomass that has been irradiated is described in U.S. Pat.No. 8,083,906 to Medoff, the entire disclosure of which is incorporateherein by reference.

If desired, one or more mechanical treatments can be used in addition toirradiation to further reduce the recalcitrance of thecarbohydrate-containing material. These processes can be applied before,during and or after irradiation.

In some cases, the mechanical treatment may include an initialpreparation of the feedstock as received, e.g., size reduction ofmaterials, such as by comminution, e.g., cutting, grinding, shearing,pulverizing or chopping. For example, in some cases, loose feedstock(e.g., recycled paper, starchy materials, or switchgrass) is prepared byshearing or shredding. Mechanical treatment may reduce the bulk densityof the carbohydrate-containing material, increase the surface area ofthe carbohydrate-containing material and/or decrease one or moredimensions of the carbohydrate-containing material.

Alternatively, or in addition, the feedstock material can be treatedwith another treatment, for example chemical treatments, such as with anacid (HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4), a base (e.g., KOH and NaOH), a chemicaloxidant (e.g., peroxides, chlorates, ozone), irradiation, steamexplosion, pyrolysis, sonication, oxidation, chemical treatment. Thetreatments can be in any order and in any sequence and combinations. Forexample, the feedstock material can first be physically treated by oneor more treatment methods, e.g., chemical treatment including and incombination with acid hydrolysis (e.g., utilizing HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4),radiation, sonication, oxidation, pyrolysis or steam explosion, and thenmechanically treated. This sequence can be advantageous since materialstreated by one or more of the other treatments, e.g., irradiation orpyrolysis, tend to be more brittle and, therefore, it may be easier tofurther change the structure of the material by mechanical treatment. Asanother example, a feedstock material can be conveyed through ionizingradiation using a conveyor as described herein and then mechanicallytreated. Chemical treatment can remove some or all of the lignin (forexample, chemical pulping) and can partially or completely hydrolyze thematerial. The methods also can be used with pre-hydrolyzed material. Themethods also can be used with material that has not been pre hydrolyzed.The methods can be used with mixtures of hydrolyzed and non-hydrolyzedmaterials, for example, with about 50% or more non-hydrolyzed material,with about 60% or more non-hydrolyzed material, with about 70% or morenon-hydrolyzed material, with about 80% or more non-hydrolyzed materialor even with 90% or more non-hydrolyzed.

In addition to size reduction, which can be performed initially and/orlater in processing, mechanical treatment can also be advantageous for“opening up,” “stressing,” breaking or shattering thecarbohydrate-containing materials, making the cellulose of the materialsmore susceptible to chain scission and/or disruption of crystallinestructure during the physical treatment.

Methods of mechanically treating the carbohydrate-containing materialinclude, for example, milling or grinding. Milling may be performedusing, for example, a hammer mill, ball mill, colloid mill, conical orcone mill, disk mill, edge mill, Wiley mill, gristmill or other mill.Grinding may be performed using, for example, a cutting/impact typegrinder. Some exemplary grinders include stone grinders, pin grinders,coffee grinders, and burr grinders. Grinding or milling may be provided,for example, by a reciprocating pin or other element, as is the case ina pin mill. Other mechanical treatment methods include mechanicalripping or tearing, other methods that apply pressure to the fibers, andair attrition milling. Suitable mechanical treatments further includeany other technique that continues the disruption of the internalstructure of the material that was initiated by the previous processingsteps.

Mechanical feed preparation systems can be configured to produce streamswith specific characteristics such as, for example, specific maximumsizes, specific length-to-width, or specific surface areas ratios.Physical preparation can increase the rate of reactions, improve themovement of material on a conveyor, improve the irradiation profile ofthe material, improve the radiation uniformity of the material, orreduce the processing time required by opening up the materials andmaking them more accessible to processes and/or reagents, such asreagents in a solution.

The bulk density of feedstocks can be controlled (e.g., increased). Insome situations, it can be desirable to prepare a low bulk densitymaterial, e.g., by densifying the material (e.g., densification can makeit easier and less costly to transport to another site) and thenreverting the material to a lower bulk density state (e.g., aftertransport). The material can be densified, for example from less thanabout 0.2 g/cc to more than about 0.9 g/cc (e.g., less than about 0.3 tomore than about 0.5 g/cc, less than about 0.3 to more than about 0.9g/cc, less than about 0.5 to more than about 0.9 g/cc, less than about0.3 to more than about 0.8 g/cc, less than about 0.2 to more than about0.5 g/cc). For example, the material can be densified by the methods andequipment disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,932,065 to Medoff andInternational Publication No. WO 2008/073186 (which was filed Oct. 26,2007, was published in English, and which designated the United States),the full disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference.Densified materials can be processed by any of the methods describedherein, or any material processed by any of the methods described hereincan be subsequently densified.

In some embodiments, the material to be processed is in the form of afibrous material that includes fibers provided by shearing a fibersource. For example, the shearing can be performed with a rotary knifecutter.

For example, a fiber source, e.g., that is recalcitrant or that has hadits recalcitrance level reduced, can be sheared, e.g., in a rotary knifecutter, to provide a first fibrous material. The first fibrous materialis passed through a first screen, e.g., having an average opening sizeof 1.59 mm or less ( 1/16 inch, 0.0625 inch), provide a second fibrousmaterial. If desired, the fiber source can be cut prior to the shearing,e.g., with a shredder. For example, when a paper is used as the fibersource, the paper can be first cut into strips that are, e.g., ¼- to½-inch wide, using a shredder, e.g., a counter-rotating screw shredder,such as those manufactured by Munson (Utica, N.Y.). As an alternative toshredding, the paper can be reduced in size by cutting to a desired sizeusing a guillotine cutter. For example, the guillotine cutter can beused to cut the paper into sheets that are, e.g., 10 inches wide by 12inches long.

In some embodiments, the shearing of the fiber source and the passing ofthe resulting first fibrous material through a first screen areperformed concurrently. The shearing and the passing can also beperformed in a batch-type process.

For example, a rotary knife cutter can be used to concurrently shear thefiber source and screen the first fibrous material. A rotary knifecutter includes a hopper that can be loaded with a shredded fiber sourceprepared by shredding a fiber source.

In some implementations, the feedstock is physically treated prior tosaccharification and/or fermentation. Physical treatment processes caninclude one or more of any of those described herein, such as mechanicaltreatment, chemical treatment, irradiation, sonication, oxidation,pyrolysis or steam explosion. Treatment methods can be used incombinations of two, three, four, or even all of these technologies (inany order). When more than one treatment method is used, the methods canbe applied at the same time or at different times. Other processes thatchange a molecular structure of a biomass feedstock may also be used,alone or in combination with the processes disclosed herein.

Mechanical treatments that may be used, and the characteristics of themechanically treated carbohydrate-containing materials, are described infurther detail in U.S. Pat. App. Pub. 2012/0100577 A1, filed Oct. 18,2011, the full disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein byreference.

Sonication, Pyrolysis, Oxidation, Steam Explosion

If desired, one or more sonication, pyrolysis, oxidative, or steamexplosion processes can be used instead of or in addition to irradiationto reduce or further reduce the recalcitrance of thecarbohydrate-containing material. For example, these processes can beapplied before, during and or after irradiation. These processes aredescribed in detail in U.S. Pat. No. 7,932,065 to Medoff, the fulldisclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

Use of Treated Biomass Material

Using the methods described herein, a starting biomass material (e.g.,plant biomass, animal biomass, paper, and municipal waste biomass) canbe used as feedstock to produce useful intermediates and products suchas organic acids, salts of organic acids, anhydrides, esters of organicacids and fuels, e.g., fuels for internal combustion engines orfeedstocks for fuel cells. Systems and processes are described hereinthat can use as feedstock cellulosic and/or lignocellulosic materialsthat are readily available, but often can be difficult to process, e.g.,municipal waste streams and waste paper streams, such as streams thatinclude newspaper, kraft paper, corrugated paper or mixtures of these.

In order to convert the feedstock to a form that can be readilyprocessed, the glucan- or xylan-containing cellulose in the feedstockcan be hydrolyzed to low molecular weight carbohydrates, such as sugars,by a saccharifying agent, e.g., an enzyme or acid, a process referred toas saccharification. The low molecular weight carbohydrates can then beused, for example, in an existing manufacturing plant, such as a singlecell protein plant, an enzyme manufacturing plant, or a fuel plant,e.g., an ethanol manufacturing facility.

The feedstock can be hydrolyzed using an enzyme, e.g., by combining thematerials and the enzyme in a solvent, e.g., in an aqueous solution.

Alternatively, the enzymes can be supplied by organisms that break downbiomass, such as the cellulose and/or the lignin portions of thebiomass, contain or manufacture various cellulolytic enzymes(cellulases), ligninases or various small molecule biomass-degradingmetabolites. These enzymes may be a complex of enzymes that actsynergistically to degrade crystalline cellulose or the lignin portionsof biomass. Examples of cellulolytic enzymes include: endoglucanases,cellobiohydrolases, and cellobiases (beta-glucosidases).

During saccharification a cellulosic substrate can be initiallyhydrolyzed by endoglucanases at random locations producing oligomericintermediates. These intermediates are then substrates for exo-splittingglucanases such as cellobiohydrolase to produce cellobiose from the endsof the cellulose polymer. Cellobiose is a water-soluble 1,4-linked dimerof glucose. Finally, cellobiase cleaves cellobiose to yield glucose. Theefficiency (e.g., time to hydrolyze and/or completeness of hydrolysis)of this process depends on the recalcitrance of the cellulosic material.

Intermediates and Products

Using the processes described herein, the biomass material can beconverted to one or more products, such as energy, fuels, foods andmaterials. Specific examples of products include, but are not limitedto, hydrogen, sugars (e.g., glucose, xylose, arabinose, mannose,galactose, fructose, disaccharides, oligosaccharides andpolysaccharides), alcohols (e.g., monohydric alcohols or dihydricalcohols, such as ethanol, n-propanol, isobutanol, sec-butanol,tert-butanol or n-butanol), hydrated or hydrous alcohols (e.g.,containing greater than 10%, 20%, 30% or even greater than 40% water),biodiesel, organic acids, hydrocarbons (e.g., methane, ethane, propane,isobutene, pentane, n-hexane, biodiesel, bio-gasoline and mixturesthereof), co-products (e.g., proteins, such as cellulolytic proteins(enzymes) or single cell proteins), and mixtures of any of these in anycombination or relative concentration, and optionally in combinationwith any additives (e.g., fuel additives). Other examples includecarboxylic acids, salts of a carboxylic acid, a mixture of carboxylicacids and salts of carboxylic acids and esters of carboxylic acids(e.g., methyl, ethyl and n-propyl esters), ketones (e.g., acetone),aldehydes (e.g., acetaldehyde), alpha and beta unsaturated acids (e.g.,acrylic acid) and olefins (e.g., ethylene). Other alcohols and alcoholderivatives include propanol, propylene glycol, 1,4-butanediol,1,3-propanediol, sugar alcohols (e.g., erythritol, glycol, glycerol,sorbitol threitol, arabitol, ribitol, mannitol, dulcitol, fucitol,iditol, isomalt, maltitol, lactitol, xylitol and other polyols), andmethyl or ethyl esters of any of these alcohols. Other products includemethyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate, lactic acid, citric acid, formicacid, acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, succinic acid, valericacid, caproic acid, 3-hydroxypropionic acid, palmitic acid, stearicacid, oxalic acid, malonic acid, glutaric acid, oleic acid, linoleicacid, glycolic acid, gamma-hydroxybutyric acid, and mixtures thereof,salts of any of these acids, mixtures of any of the acids and theirrespective salts.

Any combination of the above products with each other, and/or of theabove products with other products, which other products may be made bythe processes described herein or otherwise, may be packaged togetherand sold as products. The products may be combined, e.g., mixed, blendedor co-dissolved, or may simply be packaged or sold together.

Any of the products or combinations of products described herein may besanitized or sterilized prior to selling the products, e.g., afterpurification or isolation or even after packaging, to neutralize one ormore potentially undesirable contaminants that could be present in theproduct(s). Such sanitation can be done with electron bombardment, forexample, be at a dosage of less than about 20 Mrad, e.g., from about 0.1to 15 Mrad, from about 0.5 to 7 Mrad, or from about 1 to 3 Mrad.

The processes described herein can produce various by-product streamsuseful for generating steam and electricity to be used in other parts ofthe plant (co-generation) or sold on the open market. For example, steamgenerated from burning by-product streams can be used in a distillationprocess. As another example, electricity generated from burningby-product streams can be used to power electron beam generators used inpretreatment.

The by-products used to generate steam and electricity are derived froma number of sources throughout the process. For example, anaerobicdigestion of wastewater can produce a biogas high in methane and a smallamount of waste biomass (sludge). As another example,post-saccharification and/or post-distillate solids (e.g., unconvertedlignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose remaining from the pretreatment andprimary processes) can be used, e.g., burned, as a fuel.

Other intermediates and products, including food and pharmaceuticalproducts, are described in U.S. Pat. App. Pub. 2010/0124583 A1,published May 20, 2010, to Medoff, the full disclosure of which ishereby incorporated by reference herein,

Lignin Derived Products

The spent biomass (e.g., spent lignocellulosic material) fromlignocellulosic processing by the methods described are expected to havea high lignin content and in addition to being useful for producingenergy through combustion in a Co-Generation plant, may have uses asother valuable products. For example, the lignin can be used as capturedas a plastic, or it can be synthetically upgraded to other plastics. Insome instances, it can also be converted to lignosulfonates, which canbe utilized as binders, dispersants, emulsifiers or as sequestrants.

When used as a binder, the lignin or a lignosulfonate can, e.g., beutilized in coal briquettes, in ceramics, for binding carbon black, forbinding fertilizers and herbicides, as a dust suppressant, in the makingof plywood and particle board, for binding animal feeds, as a binder forfiberglass, as a binder in linoleum paste and as a soil stabilizer.

As a dispersant, the lignin or lignosulfonates can be used, e.g.,concrete mixes, clay and ceramics, dyes and pigments, leather tanningand in gypsum board.

As an emulsifier, the lignin or lignosulfonates can be used, e.g., inasphalt, pigments and dyes, pesticides and wax emulsions.

As a sequestrant, the lignin or lignosulfonates can be used, e.g., inmicro-nutrient systems, cleaning compounds and water treatment systems,e.g., for boiler and cooling systems.

For energy production lignin generally has a higher energy content thanholocellulose (cellulose and hemicellulose) since it contains morecarbon than holocellulose. For example, dry lignin can have an energycontent of between about 11,000 and 12,500 BTU per pound, compared to7,000 an 8,000 BTU per pound of holocellulose. As such, lignin can bedensified and converted into briquettes and pellets for burning. Forexample, the lignin can be converted into pellets by any methoddescribed herein. For a slower burning pellet or briquette, the lignincan be crosslinked, such as applying a radiation dose of between about0.5 Mrad and 5 Mrad. Crosslinking can make a slower burning form factor.The form factor, such as a pellet or briquette, can be converted to a“synthetic coal” or charcoal by pyrolyzing in the absence of air, e.g.,at between 400 and 950° C. Prior to pyrolyzing, it can be desirable tocrosslink the lignin to maintain structural integrity.

Co-generation using spent biomass is described in U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 61/774,773 filed Mar. 8, 2013 the entire disclosuretherein is herein incorporated by reference.

Biomass Processing after Irradiation

After irradiation the biomass may be transferred to a vessel forsaccharification. Alternately, the biomass can be heated after thebiomass is irradiated prior to the saccharification step. The biomasscan be, for example, by IR radiation, microwaves, combustion (e.g., gas,coal, oil, biomass), resistive heating and/or inductive coils. Thisheating can be in a liquid, for example, in water or other water-basedsolvents. The heat can be applied from at least one side or more thanone side, can be continuous or periodic and can be for only a portion ofthe material or all the material. The biomass may be heated totemperatures above 90° C. in an aqueous liquid that may have an acid ora base present. For example, the aqueous biomass slurry may be heated to90 to 150° C., alternatively, 105 to 145° C., optionally 110 to 140° C.or further optionally from 115 to 135° C. The time that the aqueousbiomass mixture is held at the peak temperature is 1 to 12 hours,alternately, 1 to 6 hours, optionally 1 to 4 hours at the peaktemperature. In some instances, the aqueous biomass mixture is acidic,and the pH is between 1 and 5, optionally 1 to 4, or alternately, 2 to3. In other instances, the aqueous biomass mixture is alkaline and thepH is between 6 and 13, alternately, 8 to 12, or optionally, 8 to 11.

Saccharification

The treated biomass materials can be saccharified, generally bycombining the material and a cellulase enzyme in a fluid medium, e.g.,an aqueous solution. In some cases, the material is boiled, steeped, orcooked in hot water prior to saccharification, as described in U.S. Pat.App. Pub. 2012/0100577 A1 by Medoff and Masterman, published on Apr. 26,2012, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein.

The saccharification process can be partially or completely performed ina tank (e.g., a tank having a volume of at least 4000, 40,000, or500,000 L) in a manufacturing plant, and/or can be partially orcompletely performed in transit, e.g., in a rail car, tanker truck, orin a supertanker or the hold of a ship. The time required for completesaccharification will depend on the process conditions and thecarbohydrate-containing material and enzyme used. If saccharification isperformed in a manufacturing plant under controlled conditions, thecellulose may be substantially entirely converted to sugar, e.g.,glucose in about 12-96 hours. If saccharification is performed partiallyor completely in transit, saccharification may take longer.

It is generally preferred that the tank contents be mixed duringsaccharification, e.g., using jet mixing as described in InternationalApp. No. PCT/US2010/035331, filed May 18, 2010, which was published inEnglish as WO 2010/135380 and designated the United States, the fulldisclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein.

The addition of surfactants can enhance the rate of saccharification.Examples of surfactants include non-ionic surfactants, such as aTween→20 or Tween→80 polyethylene glycol surfactants, ionic surfactants,or amphoteric surfactants.

It is generally preferred that the concentration of the sugar solutionresulting from saccharification be relatively high, e.g., greater than40%, or greater than 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or even greater than 95% byweight. Water may be removed, e.g., by evaporation, to increase theconcentration of the sugar solution. This reduces the volume to beshipped, and also inhibits microbial growth in the solution.

Alternatively, sugar solutions of lower concentrations may be used, inwhich case it may be desirable to add an antimicrobial additive, e.g., abroad spectrum antibiotic, in a low concentration, e.g., 50 to 150 ppm.Other suitable antibiotics include amphotericin B, ampicillin,chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, hygromycin B, kanamycin,neomycin, penicillin, puromycin, streptomycin. Antibiotics will inhibitgrowth of microorganisms during transport and storage, and can be usedat appropriate concentrations, e.g., between 15 and 1000 ppm by weight,e.g., between 25 and 500 ppm, or between 50 and 150 ppm. If desired, anantibiotic can be included even if the sugar concentration is relativelyhigh. Alternatively, other additives with anti-microbial of preservativeproperties may be used. Preferably the antimicrobial additive(s) arefood-grade.

A relatively high concentration solution can be obtained by limiting theamount of water added to the carbohydrate-containing material with theenzyme. The concentration can be controlled, e.g., by controlling howmuch saccharification takes place. For example, concentration can beincreased by adding more carbohydrate-containing material to thesolution. In order to keep the sugar that is being produced in solution,a surfactant can be added, e.g., one of those discussed above.Solubility can also be increased by increasing the temperature of thesolution. For example, the solution can be maintained at a temperatureof 40-50° C., 60-80° C., or even higher.

Saccharifying Agents

Suitable cellulolytic enzymes include cellulases from species in thegenera Bacillus, Coprinus, Myceliophthora, Cephalosporium, Scytalidium,Penicillium, Aspergillus, Pseudomonas, Humicola, Fusarium, Thielavia,Acremonium, Chrysosporium and Trichoderma, especially those produced bya strain selected from the species Aspergillus (see, e.g., EP Pub. No. 0458 162), Humicola insolens (reclassified as Scytalidium thermophilum,see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,435,307), Coprinus cinereus, Fusariumoxysporum, Myceliophthora thermophila, Meripilus giganteus, Thielaviaterrestris, Acremonium sp. (including, but not limited to, A.persicinum, A. acremonium, A. A. brachypenium, A. dichromosporum, A.obclavatum, A. pinkertoniae, A. roseogriseum, A. incoloratum, and A.furatum). Preferred strains include Humicola insolens DSM 1800, Fusariumoxysporum DSM 2672, Myceliophthora thermophila CBS 117.65,Cephalosporium sp. RYM-202, Acremonium sp. CBS 478.94, Acremonium sp.CBS 265.95, Acremonium persicinum CBS 169.65, Acremonium acremonium AHU9519, Cephalosporium sp. CBS 535.71, Acremonium brachypenium CBS 866.73,Acremonium dichromosporum CBS 683.73, Acremonium obclavatum CBS 311.74,Acremonium pinkertoniae CBS 157.70, Acremonium roseogriseum CBS 134.56,Acremonium incoloratum CBS 146.62, and Acremonium furatum CBS 299.70H.Cellulolytic enzymes may also be obtained from Chrysosporium, preferablya strain of Chrysosporium lucknowense. Additional strains that can beused include, but are not limited to, Trichoderma (particularly T.viride, T. reesei, and T. koningii), alkalophilic Bacillus (see, forexample, U.S. Pat. No. 3,844,890 and EP Pub. No. 0 458 162), andStreptomyces (see, e.g., EP Pub. No. 0 458 162).

In addition to or in combination to enzymes, acids, bases and otherchemicals (e.g., oxidants) can be utilized to saccharify lignocellulosicand cellulosic materials. These can be used in any combination orsequence (e.g., before, after and/or during addition of an enzyme). Forexample strong mineral acids can be utilized (e.g. HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4)and strong bases (e.g., NaOH, KOH).

Sugars

In the processes described herein, for example after saccharification,sugars (e.g., glucose and xylose) can be isolated. For example, sugarscan be isolated by precipitation, crystallization, chromatography (e.g.,simulated moving bed chromatography, high pressure chromatography),centrifugation, extraction, any other isolation method known in the art,and combinations thereof.

Hydrogenation and Other Chemical Transformations

The processes described herein can include hydrogenation. For example,glucose and xylose can be hydrogenated to sorbitol and xylitolrespectively. Hydrogenation can be accomplished by use of a catalyst(e.g., Pt/gamma-Al₂O₃, Ru/C, Raney Nickel, or other catalysts know inthe art) in combination with H₂ under high pressure (e.g., 10 to 12000psi). Other types of chemical transformation of the products from theprocesses described herein can be used, for example, production oforganic sugar derived products such (e.g., furfural and furfural-derivedproducts). Chemical transformations of sugar derived products aredescribed in U.S. application Ser. No. 13/934,704, filed Jul. 3, 2013,the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety.

Fermentation

Yeast and Zymomonas bacteria, for example, can be used for fermentationor conversion of sugar(s) to alcohol(s). Other microorganisms arediscussed below. The optimum pH for fermentations is about pH 4 to 7.For example, the optimum pH for yeast is from about pH 4 to 5, while theoptimum pH for Zymomonas is from about pH 5 to 6. Typical fermentationtimes are about 24 to 168 hours (e.g., 24 to 96 hrs.) with temperaturesin the range of 20° C. to 40° C. (e.g., 26° C. to 40° C.), howeverthermophilic microorganisms prefer higher temperatures.

In some embodiments, e.g., when anaerobic organisms are used, at least aportion of the fermentation is conducted in the absence of oxygen, e.g.,under a blanket of an inert gas such as N2, Ar, He, CO2 or mixturesthereof. Additionally, the mixture may have a constant purge of an inertgas flowing through the tank during part of or all of the fermentation.In some cases, anaerobic condition, can be achieved or maintained bycarbon dioxide production during the fermentation and no additionalinert gas is needed.

In some embodiments, all or a portion of the fermentation process can beinterrupted before the low molecular weight sugar is completelyconverted to a product (e.g., ethanol). The intermediate fermentationproducts include sugar and carbohydrates in high concentrations. Thesugars and carbohydrates can be isolated via any means known in the art.These intermediate fermentation products can be used in preparation offood for human or animal consumption. Additionally or alternatively, theintermediate fermentation products can be ground to a fine particle sizein a stainless-steel laboratory mill to produce a flour-like substance.Jet mixing may be used during fermentation, and in some casessaccharification and fermentation are performed in the same tank.

Nutrients for the microorganisms may be added during saccharificationand/or fermentation, for example the food-based nutrient packagesdescribed in U.S. Pat. App. Pub. 2012/0052536, filed Jul. 15, 2011, thecomplete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

“Fermentation” includes the methods and products that are disclosed inInternational Publication No. WO 2013/096700, published Jun. 27, 2013,and International Publication No. WO 2013/096693, published Jun. 27,2013, the contents of both of which are incorporated by reference hereinin their entirety.

Mobile fermenters can be utilized, as described in International App.No. PCT/US2007/074028 (which was filed Jul. 20, 2007, was published inEnglish as WO 2008/011598 and designated the United States) and has a USissued U.S. Pat. No. 8,318,453, the contents of which are incorporatedherein in its entirety. Similarly, the saccharification equipment can bemobile. Further, saccharification and/or fermentation may be performedin part or entirely during transit.

Fermentation Agents

The microorganism(s) used in fermentation can be naturally-occurringmicroorganisms and/or engineered microorganisms. For example, themicroorganism can be a bacterium (including, but not limited to, e.g., acellulolytic bacterium), a fungus, (including, but not limited to, e.g.,a yeast), a plant, a protist, e.g., a protozoa or a fungus-like protest(including, but not limited to, e.g., a slime mold), or an alga. Whenthe organisms are compatible, mixtures of organisms can be utilized.

Suitable fermenting microorganisms have the ability to convertcarbohydrates, such as glucose, fructose, xylose, arabinose, mannose,galactose, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides into fermentationproducts. Fermenting microorganisms include strains of the genusSaccharomyces spp. (including, but not limited to, S. cerevisiae(baker's yeast), S. distaticus, S. uvarum), the genus Kluyveromyces,(including, but not limited to, K. marxianus, K. fragilis), the genusCandida (including, but not limited to, C. pseudotropicalis, and C.brassicae), Pichia stipitis (a relative of Candida shehatae), the genusClavispora (including, but not limited to, C. lusitaniae and C.opuntiae), the genus Pachysolen (including, but not limited to, P.tannophilus), the genus Bretannomyces (including, but not limited to,e.g., B. clausenii (Philippidis, G. P., 1996, Cellulose bioconversiontechnology, in Handbook on Bioethanol: Production and Utilization,Wyman, C. E., ed., Taylor & Francis, Washington, D.C., 179-212)). Othersuitable microorganisms include, for example, Zymomonas mobilis,Clostridium spp. (including, but not limited to, C. thermocellum(Philippidis, 1996, supra), C. saccharobutylacetonicum, C. tyrobutyricumC. saccharobutylicum, C. Puniceum, C. beijernckii, and C.acetobutylicum), Moniliella spp. (including but not limited to M.pollinis, M. tomentosa, M. madida, M. nigrescens, M. oedocephali, M.megachiliensis), Yarrowia lipolytica, Aureobasidium sp.,Trichosporonoides sp., Trigonopsis variabilis, Trichosporon sp.,Moniliellaacetoabutans sp., Typhula variabilis, Candida magnoliae,Ustilaginomycetes sp., Pseudozyma tsukubaensis, yeast species of generaZygosaccharomyces, Debaryomyces, Hansenula and Pichia, and fungi of thedematioid genus Torula (e.g., T. corallina).

Many such microbial strains are publicly available, either commerciallyor through depositories such as the ATCC (American Type CultureCollection, Manassas, Va., USA), the NRRL (Agricultural Research ServiceCulture Collection, Peoria, Ill., USA), or the DSMZ (Deutsche Sammlungvon Mikroorganismen and Zellkulturen GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany), toname a few.

Commercially available yeasts include, for example, RED STAR®/LesaffreEthanol Red (available from Red Star/Lesaffre, USA), FALI® (availablefrom Fleischmann's Yeast, a division of Burns Philip Food Inc., USA),SUPERS TART® (Lallemand Biofuels and Distilled Spirits, Canada), EAGLEC6 FUEL™ or C6 FUEL™ (available from Lallemand Biofuels and DistilledSpirits, Canada), GERT STRAND® (available from Gert Strand AB, Sweden)and FERMOL® (available from DSM Specialties).

Distillation

After fermentation, the resulting fluids can be distilled using, forexample, a “beer column” to separate ethanol and other alcohols from themajority of water and residual solids. The vapor exiting the beer columncan be, e.g., 35% by weight ethanol and can be fed to a rectificationcolumn. A mixture of nearly azeotropic (92.5%) ethanol and water fromthe rectification column can be purified to pure (99.5%) ethanol usingvapor-phase molecular sieves. The beer column bottoms can be sent to thefirst effect of a three-effect evaporator. The rectification columnreflux condenser can provide heat for this first effect. After the firsteffect, solids can be separated using a centrifuge and dried in a rotarydryer. A portion (25%) of the centrifuge effluent can be recycled tofermentation and the rest sent to the second and third evaporatoreffects. Most of the evaporator condensate can be returned to theprocess as fairly clean condensate with a small portion split off towaste water treatment to prevent build-up of low-boiling compounds.

Hydrocarbon-Containing Materials

“Hydrocarbon-containing materials,” as used herein, is meant to includeoil sands, oil shale, tar sands, coal dust, coal slurry, bitumen,various types of coal, and other naturally-occurring and syntheticmaterials that include both hydrocarbon components and solid matter. Thesolid matter can include rock, sand, clay, stone, silt, drilling slurry,or other solid organic and/or inorganic matter. The term can alsoinclude waste products such as drilling waste and by-products, refiningwaste and by-products, or other waste products containing hydrocarboncomponents, such as asphalt shingling and covering, asphalt pavement,etc.

Conveying Systems

Various conveying systems can be used to convey the biomass material,for example, to and from a vault. Exemplary conveyors and conveyingsystems belt conveyors, pneumatic conveyors, screw conveyors, carts,trains, trains or carts on rails, elevators, front loaders, backhoes,cranes, various scrapers and shovels, trucks, and throwing devices canbe used.

Other Embodiments

Any material, processes or processed materials can be used to makeproducts and/or intermediates such as composites, fillers, binders,plastic additives, adsorbents and controlled release agents. The methodscan include densification, for example, by applying pressure and heat tothe materials. For example composites can be made by combining fibrousmaterials with a resin or polymer. For example radiation cross-linkableresin, e.g., a thermoplastic resin can be combined with a fibrousmaterial to provide a fibrous material/cross-linkable resin combination.Such materials can be, for example, useful as building materials,protective sheets, containers and other structural materials (e.g.,molded and/or extruded products). Absorbents can be, for example, in theform of pellets, chips, fibers and/or sheets. Adsorbents can be used,for example, as pet bedding, packaging material or in pollution controlsystems. Controlled release matrices can also be the form of, forexample, pellets, chips, fibers and or sheets. The controlled releasematrices can, for example, be used to release drugs, biocides,fragrances. For example, composites, absorbents and control releaseagents and their uses are described in U.S. Serial No.PCT/US2006/010648, filed Mar. 23, 2006, and U.S. Pat. No. 8,074,910filed Nov. 22, 2011, the entire disclosures of which are hereinincorporated by reference.

In some instances the biomass material is treated at a first level toreduce recalcitrance, e.g., utilizing accelerated electrons, toselectively release one or more sugars (e.g., xylose). The biomass canthen be treated to a second level to release one or more other sugars(e.g., glucose). Optionally, the biomass can be dried betweentreatments. The treatments can include applying chemical and biochemicaltreatments to release the sugars. For example, a biomass material can betreated to a level of less than about 20 Mrad (e.g., less than about 15Mrad, less than about 10 Mrad, less than about 5 Mrad, less than about 2Mrad) and then treated with a solution of sulfuric acid, containing lessthan 10% sulfuric acid (e.g., less than about 9%, less than about 8%,less than about 7%, less than about 6%, less than about 5%, less thanabout 4%, less than about 3%, less than about 2%, less than about 1%,less than about 0.75%, less than about 0.50%, less than about 0.25%) torelease xylose. Xylose, for example that is released into solution, canbe separated from solids and optionally the solids washed with asolvent/solution (e.g., with water and/or acidified water). The solidscan be dried, for example in air and/or under vacuum optionally withheating (e.g., below about 150° C., below about 120° C.) to a watercontent below about 25 wt. % (below about 20 wt. %, below about 15 wt.%, below about 10 wt. %, below about 5 wt. %). The solids can then betreated with a level of less than about 30 Mrad (e.g., less than about25 Mrad, less than about 20 Mrad, less than about 15 Mrad, less thanabout 10 Mrad, less than about 5 Mrad, less than about 1 Mrad) and thentreated with an enzyme (e.g., a cellulase) to release glucose. Theglucose (e.g., glucose in solution) can be separated from the remainingsolids. The solids can then be further processed, for example utilizedto make energy or other products (e.g., lignin derived products).

Flavors, Fragrances and Colorants

Any of the products and/or intermediates described herein, for example,produced by the processes, systems and/or equipment described herein,can be combined with flavors, fragrances, colorants and/or mixtures ofthese. For example, any one or more of (optionally along with flavors,fragrances and/or colorants) sugars, organic acids, fuels, polyols, suchas sugar alcohols, biomass, fibers and composites can be combined with(e.g., formulated, mixed or reacted) or used to make other products. Forexample, one or more such product can be used to make soaps, detergents,candies, drinks (e.g., cola, wine, beer, liquors such as gin or vodka,sports drinks, coffees, teas), pharmaceuticals, adhesives, sheets (e.g.,woven, none woven, filters, tissues) and/or composites (e.g., boards).For example, one or more such product can be combined with herbs,flowers, petals, spices, vitamins, potpourri, or candles. For example,the formulated, mixed or reacted combinations can haveflavors/fragrances of grapefruit, orange, apple, raspberry, banana,lettuce, celery, cinnamon, chocolate, vanilla, peppermint, mint, onion,garlic, pepper, saffron, ginger, milk, wine, beer, tea, lean beef, fish,clams, olive oil, coconut fat, pork fat, butter fat, beef bouillon,legume, potatoes, marmalade, ham, coffee and cheeses.

Flavors, fragrances and colorants can be added in any amount, such asbetween about 0.001 wt. % to about 30 wt. %, e.g., between about 0.01 toabout 20, between about 0.05 to about 10, or between about 0.1 wt. % toabout 5 wt. %. These can be formulated, mixed and or reacted (e.g., withany one of more product or intermediate described herein) by any meansand in any order or sequence (e.g., agitated, mixed, emulsified, gelled,infused, heated, sonicated, and/or suspended). Fillers, binders,emulsifier, antioxidants can also be utilized, for example, proteingels, starches and silica.

In one embodiment the flavors, fragrances and colorants can be added tothe biomass immediately after the biomass is irradiated such that thereactive sites created by the irradiation may react with reactivecompatible sites of the flavors, fragrances, and colorants.

The flavors, fragrances and colorants can be natural and/or syntheticmaterials. These materials can be one or more of a compound, acomposition or mixtures of these (e.g., a formulated or naturalcomposition of several compounds). Optionally the flavors, fragrances,antioxidants and colorants can be derived biologically, for example,from a fermentation process (e.g., fermentation of saccharifiedmaterials as described herein). Alternatively, or additionally theseflavors, fragrances and colorants can be harvested from a whole organism(e.g., plant, fungus, animal, bacteria or yeast) or a part of anorganism. The organism can be collected and or extracted to providecolor, flavors, fragrances and/or antioxidant by any means includingutilizing the methods, systems and equipment described herein, hot waterextraction, supercritical fluid extraction, chemical extraction (e.g.,solvent or reactive extraction including acids and bases), mechanicalextraction (e.g., pressing, comminuting, filtering), utilizing anenzyme, utilizing a bacteria such as to break down a starting material,and combinations of these methods. The compounds can be derived by achemical reaction, for example, the combination of a sugar (e.g., asproduced as described herein) with an amino acid (Maillard reaction).The flavor, fragrance, antioxidant and/or colorant can be anintermediate and or product produced by the methods, equipment orsystems described herein, for example and ester and a lignin derivedproduct.

Flavors, Fragrances, and Colorants

Some examples of flavor, fragrances or colorants are polyphenols.Polyphenols are pigments responsible for the red, purple and bluecolorants of many fruits, vegetables, cereal grains, and flowers.Polyphenols also can have antioxidant properties and often have a bittertaste. The antioxidant properties make these important preservatives. Onclass of polyphenols are the flavonoids, such as Anthocyanidines,flavanonols, flavan-3-ols, s, flavanones and flavanonols. Other phenoliccompounds that can be used include phenolic acids and their esters, suchas chlorogenic acid and polymeric tannins.

Among the colorants inorganic compounds, minerals or organic compoundscan be used, for example titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, aluminum oxide,cadmium yellow (E.g., CdS), cadmium orange (e.g., CdS with some Se),alizarin crimson (e.g., synthetic or non-synthetic rose madder),ultramarine (e.g., synthetic ultramarine, natural ultramarine, syntheticultramarine violet), cobalt blue, cobalt yellow, cobalt green, viridian(e.g., hydrated chromium(III)oxide), chalcophylite, conichalcite,cornubite, cornwallite and liroconite. Black pigments such as carbonblack and self-dispersed blacks may be used.

Some flavors and fragrances that can be utilized include ACALEA TBHQ,ACET C-6, ALLYL AMYL GLYCOLATE, ALPHA TERPINEOL, AMBRETTOLIDE, AMBRINOL95, ANDRANE, APHERMATE, APPLELIDE, BACDANOL®, BERGAMAL, BETA IONONEEPDXIDE, BETA NAPHTHYL ISO-BUTYL ETHER, BICYCLONONALACTONE, BORNAFIX®,CANTHOXAL, CASHMERAN®, CASHMERAN® VELVET, CASSIFFIX®, CEDRAFIX,CEDRAMBER®, CEDRYL ACETATE, CELESTOLIDE, CINNAMALVA, CITRAL DIMETHYLACETATE, CITROLATE™, CITRONELLOL 700, CITRONELLOL 950, CITRONELLOLCOEUR, CITRONELLYL ACETATE, CITRONELLYL ACETATE PURE, CITRONELLYLFORMATE, CLARYCET, CLONAL, CONIFERAN, CONIFERAN PURE, CORTEX ALDEHYDE50% PEOMOSA, CYCLABUTE, CYCLACET®, CYCLAPROP®, CYCLEMAX™, CYCLOHEXYLETHYL ACETATE, DAMASCOL, DELTA DAMASCONE, DIHYDRO CYCLACET, DIHYDROMYRCENOL, DIHYDRO TERPINEOL, DIHYDRO TERPINYL ACETATE, DIMETHYLCYCLORMOL, DIMETHYL OCTANOL PQ, DIMYRCETOL, DIOLA, DIPENTENE, DULCINYL®RECRYSTALLIZED, ETHYL-3-PHENYL GLYCIDATE, FLEURAMONE, FLEURANIL, FLORALSUPER, FLORALOZONE, FLORIFFOL, FRAISTONE, FRUCTONE, GALAXOLIDE® 50,GALAXOLIDE® 50 BB, GALAXOLIDE® 50 IPM, GALAXOLIDE® UNDILUTED,GALBASCONE, GERALDEHYDE, GERANIOL 5020, GERANIOL 600 TYPE, GERANIOL 950,GERANIOL 980 (PURE), GERANIOL CFT COEUR, GERANIOL COEUR, GERANYL ACETATECOEUR, GERANYL ACETATE, PURE, GERANYL FORMATE, GRISALVA, GUAIYL ACETATE,HELIONAL™, HERBAC, HERBALIME™, HEXADECANOLIDE, HEXALON, HEXENYLSALICYLATE CIS 3-, HYACINTH BODY, HYACINTH BODY NO. 3, HYDRATROPICALDEHYDE.DMA, HYDROXYOL, INDOLAROME, INTRELEVEN ALDEHYDE, INTRELEVENALDEHYDE SPECIAL, IONONE ALPHA, IONONE BETA, ISO CYCLO CITRAL, ISO CYCLOGERANIOL, ISO E SUPER®, ISOBUTYL QUINOLINE, JASMAL, JESSEMAL®,KHARISMAL®, KHARISMAL® SUPER, KHUSINIL, KOAVONE®, KOHINOOL®, LIFFAROME™,LIMOXAL, LINDENOL™, LYRAL®, LYRAME SUPER, MANDARIN ALD 10% TRI ETH,CITR, MARITIMA, MCK CHINESE, MEIJIFF™, MELAFLEUR, MELOZONE, METHYLANTHRANILATE, METHYL IONONE ALPHA EXTRA, METHYL IONONE GAMMA A, METHYLIONONE GAMMA COEUR, METHYL IONONE GAMMA PURE, METHYL LAVENDER KETONE,MONTAVERDI®, MUGUESIA, MUGUET ALDEHYDE 50, MUSK Z4, MYRAC ALDEHYDE,MYRCENYL ACETATE, NECTARATE™, NEROL 900, NERYL ACETATE, OCIMENE,OCTACETAL, ORANGE FLOWER ETHER, ORIVONE, ORRINIFF 25%, OXASPIRANE,OZOFLEUR, PAMPLEFLEUR®, PEOMOSA, PHENOXANOL®, PICONIA, PRECYCLEMONE B,PRENYL ACETATE, PRISMANTOL, RESEDA BODY, ROSALVA, ROSAMUSK, SANJINOL,SANTALIFF™, SYVERTAL, TERPINEOL, TERPINOLENE 20, TERPINOLENE 90 PQ,TERPINOLENE RECT., TERPINYL ACETATE, TERPINYL ACETATE JAX, TETRAHYDRO,MUGUOL®, TETRAHYDRO MYRCENOL, TETRAMERAN, TIMBERSILK™, TOBACAROL,TRIMOFIX® O TT, TRIPLAL®, TRISAMBER®, VANORIS, VERDOX™ VERDOX™ HC,VERTENEX®, VERTENEX® HC, VERTOFIX® COEUR, VERTOLIFF, VERTOLIFF ISO,VIOLIFF, VIVALDIE, ZENOLIDE, ABS INDIA 75 PCT MIGLYOL, ABS MOROCCO 50PCT DPG, ABS MOROCCO 50 PCT TEC, ABSOLUTE FRENCH, ABSOLUTE INDIA,ABSOLUTE MD 50 PCT BB, ABSOLUTE MOROCCO, CONCENTRATE PG, TINCTURE 20PCT, AMBERGRIS, AMBRETTE ABSOLUTE, AMBRETTE SEED OIL, ARMOISE OIL 70 PCT

THUYONE, BASIL ABSOLUTE GRAND VERT, BASIL GRAND VERT ABS MD, BASIL OILGRAND VERT, BASIL OIL VERVEINA, BASIL OIL VIETNAM, BAY OIL TERPENELESS,BEESWAX ABS N G, BEESWAX ABSOLUTE, BENZOIN RESINOID SIAM, BENZOINRESINOID SIAM 50 PCT DPG, BENZOIN RESINOID SIAM 50 PCT PG, BENZOINRESINOID SIAM 70.5 PCT TEC, BLACKCURRANT BUD ABS 65 PCT PG, BLACKCURRANTBUD ABS MD 37 PCT TEC, BLACKCURRANT BUD ABS MIGLYOL, BLACKCURRANT BUDABSOLUTE BURGUNDY, BOIS DE ROSE OIL, BRAN ABSOLUTE, BRAN RESINOID, BROOMABSOLUTE ITALY, CARDAMOM GUATEMALA CO2 EXTRACT, CARDAMOM OIL GUATEMALA,CARDAMOM OIL INDIA, CARROT HEART, CASSIE ABSOLUTE EGYPT, CASSIE ABSOLUTEMD 50 PCT IPM, CASTOREUM ABS 90 PCT TEC, CASTOREUM ABS C 50 PCT MIGLYOL,CASTOREUM ABSOLUTE, CASTOREUM RESINOID, CASTOREUM RESINOID 50 PCT DPG,CEDROL CEDRENE, CEDRUS ATLANTICA OIL REDIST, CHAMOMILE OIL ROMAN,CHAMOMILE OIL WILD, CHAMOMILE OIL WILD LOW LIMONENE, CINNAMON BARK OILCEYLAN, CISTE ABSOLUTE, CISTE ABSOLUTE COLORLESS, CITRONELLA OIL ASIAIRON FREE, CIVET ABS 75 PCT PG, CIVET ABSOLUTE, CIVET TINCTURE 10 PCT,CLARY SAGE ABS FRENCH DECOL, CLARY SAGE ABSOLUTE FRENCH, CLARY SAGEC'LESS 50 PCT PG, CLARY SAGE OIL FRENCH, COPAIBA BALSAM, COPAIBA BALSAMOIL, CORIANDER SEED OIL, CYPRESS OIL, CYPRESS OIL ORGANIC, DAVANA OIL,GALBANOL, GALBANUM ABSOLUTE COLORLESS, GALBANUM OIL, GALBANUM RESINOID,GALBANUM RESINOID 50 PCT DPG, GALBANUM RESINOID HERCOLYN BHT, GALBANUMRESINOID TEC BHT, GENTIANE ABSOLUTE MD 20 PCT BB, GENTIANE CONCRETE,GERANIUM ABS EGYPT MD, GERANIUM ABSOLUTE EGYPT, GERANIUM OIL CHINA,GERANIUM OIL EGYPT, GINGER OIL 624, GINGER OIL RECTIFIED SOLUBLE,GUAIACWOOD HEART, HAY ABS MD 50 PCT BB, HAY ABSOLUTE, HAY ABSOLUTE MD 50PCT TEC, HEALINGWOOD, HYSSOP OIL ORGANIC, IMMORTELLE ABS YUGO MD 50 PCTTEC, IMMORTELLE ABSOLUTE SPAIN, IMMORTELLE ABSOLUTE YUGO, JASMIN ABSINDIA MD, JASMIN ABSOLUTE EGYPT, JASMIN ABSOLUTE INDIA, ASMIN ABSOLUTEMOROCCO, JASMIN ABSOLUTE SAMBAC, JONQUILLE ABS MD 20 PCT BB, JONQUILLEABSOLUTE France, JUNIPER BERRY OIL FLG, JUNIPER BERRY OIL RECTIFIEDSOLUBLE, LABDANUM RESINOID 50 PCT TEC, LABDANUM RESINOID BB, LABDANUMRESINOID MD, LABDANUM RESINOID MD 50 PCT BB, LAVANDIN ABSOLUTE H,LAVANDIN ABSOLUTE MD, LAVANDIN OIL ABRIAL ORGANIC, LAVANDIN OIL GROSSOORGANIC, LAVANDIN OIL SUPER, LAVENDER ABSOLUTE H, LAVENDER ABSOLUTE MD,LAVENDER OIL COUMARIN FREE, LAVENDER OIL COUMARIN FREE ORGANIC, LAVENDEROIL MAILLETTE ORGANIC, LAVENDER OIL MT, MACE ABSOLUTE BB, MAGNOLIAFLOWER OIL LOW METHYL EUGENOL, MAGNOLIA FLOWER OIL, MAGNOLIA FLOWER OILMD, MAGNOLIA LEAF OIL, MANDARIN OIL MD, MANDARIN OIL MD BHT, MATEABSOLUTE BB, MOSS TREE ABSOLUTE MD TEX IFRA 43, MOSS-OAK ABS MD TEC IFRA43, MOSS-OAK ABSOLUTE IFRA 43, MOSS-TREE ABSOLUTE MD IPM IFRA 43, MYRRHRESINOID BB, MYRRH RESINOID MD, MYRRH RESINOID TEC, MYRTLE OIL IRONFREE, MYRTLE OIL TUNISIA RECTIFIED, NARCISSE ABS MD 20 PCT BB, NARCISSEABSOLUTE FRENCH, NEROLI OIL TUNISIA, NUTMEG OIL TERPENELESS, OEILLETABSOLUTE, OLIBANUM RESINOID, OLIBANUM RESINOID BB, OLIBANUM RESINOIDDPG, OLIBANUM RESINOID EXTRA 50 PCT DPG, OLIBANUM RESINOID MD, OLIBANUMRESINOID MD 50 PCT DPG, OLIBANUM RESINOID TEC, OPOPONAX RESINOID TEC,ORANGE BIGARADE OIL MD BHT, ORANGE BIGARADE OIL MD SCFC, ORANGE FLOWERABSOLUTE TUNISIA, ORANGE FLOWER WATER ABSOLUTE TUNISIA, ORANGE LEAFABSOLUTE, ORANGE LEAF WATER ABSOLUTE TUNISIA, ORRIS ABSOLUTE ITALY,ORRIS CONCRETE 15 PCT IRONE, ORRIS CONCRETE 8 PCT IRONE, ORRIS NATURAL15 PCT IRONE 4095C, ORRIS NATURAL 8 PCT IRONE 2942C, ORRIS RESINOID,OSMANTHUS ABSOLUTE, OSMANTHUS ABSOLUTE MD 50 PCT BB, PATCHOULI HEART No3, PATCHOULI OIL INDONESIA, PATCHOULI OIL INDONESIA IRON FREE, PATCHOULIOIL INDONESIA MD, PATCHOULI OIL REDIST, PENNYROYAL HEART, PEPPERMINTABSOLUTE MD, PETITGRAIN BIGARADE OIL TUNISIA, PETITGRAIN CITRONNIER OIL,PETITGRAIN OIL PARAGUAY TERPENELESS, PETITGRAIN OIL TERPENELESS STAB,PIMENTO BERRY OIL, PIMENTO LEAF OIL, RHODINOL EX GERANIUM CHINA, ROSEABS BULGARIAN LOW METHYL EUGENOL, ROSE ABS MOROCCO LOW METHYL EUGENOL,ROSE ABS TURKISH LOW METHYL EUGENOL, ROSE ABSOLUTE, ROSE ABSOLUTEBULGARIAN, ROSE ABSOLUTE DAMASCENA, ROSE ABSOLUTE MD, ROSE ABSOLUTEMOROCCO, ROSE ABSOLUTE TURKISH, ROSE OIL BULGARIAN, ROSE OIL DAMASCENALOW METHYL EUGENOL, ROSE OIL TURKISH, ROSEMARY OIL CAMPHOR ORGANIC,ROSEMARY OIL TUNISIA, SANDALWOOD OIL INDIA, SANDALWOOD OIL INDIARECTIFIED, SANTALOL, SCHINUS MOLLE OIL, ST JOHN BREAD TINCTURE 10 PCT,STYRAX RESINOID, STYRAX RESINOID, TAGETE OIL, TEA TREE HEART, TONKA BEANABS 50 PCT SOLVENTS, TONKA BEAN ABSOLUTE, TUBEROSE ABSOLUTE INDIA,VETIVER HEART EXTRA, VETIVER OIL HAITI, VETIVER OIL HAITI MD, VETIVEROIL JAVA, VETIVER OIL JAVA MD, VIOLET LEAF ABSOLUTE EGYPT, VIOLET LEAFABSOLUTE EGYPT DECOL, VIOLET LEAF ABSOLUTE FRENCH, VIOLET LEAF ABSOLUTEMD 50 PCT BB, WORMWOOD OIL TERPENELESS, YLANG EXTRA OIL, YLANG III OILand combinations of these.

The colorants can be among those listed in the Colour IndexInternational by the Society of Dyers and Colourists. Colorants includedyes and pigments and include those commonly used for coloring textiles,paints, inks and inkjet inks. Some colorants that can be utilizedinclude carotenoids, arylide yellows, diarylide yellows, B-naphthols,naphthols, benzimidazolones, diazo condensation pigments, pyrazolones,nickel azo yellow, phthalocyanines, quinacridones, perylenes andperinones, isoindolinone and isoindoline pigments, triarylcarboniumpigments, diketopyrrolo-pyrrole pigments, thioindigoids. Carotenoidsinclude, alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, gamma-carotene, lycopene, luteinand astaxanthin, Annatto extract, Dehydrated beets (beet powder),Canthaxanthin, Caramel, β-Apo-8′-carotenal, Cochineal extract, Carmine,Sodium copper chlorophyllin, Toasted partially defatted cookedcottonseed flour, Ferrous gluconate, Ferrous lactate, Grape colorextract, Grape skin extract (enocianina), Carrot oil, Paprika, Paprikaoleoresin, Mica-based pearlescent pigments, Riboflavin, Saffron,Titanium dioxide, Tomato lycopene extract; tomato lycopene concentrate,Turmeric, Turmeric oleoresin, FD&C Blue No. 1, FD&C Blue No. 2, FD&CGreen No. 3, Orange B, Citrus Red No. 2, FD&C Red No. 3, FD&C Red No.40, FD&C Yellow No. 5, FD&C Yellow No. 6, Alumina (dried aluminumhydroxide), Calcium carbonate, Potassium sodium copper chlorophyllin(chlorophyllin-copper complex), Dihydroxyacetone, Bismuth oxychloride,Ferric ammonium ferrocyanide, Ferric ferrocyanide, Chromium hydroxidegreen, Chromium oxide greens, Guanine, Pyrophyllite, Talc, Aluminumpowder, Bronze powder, Copper powder, Zinc oxide, D&C Blue No. 4, D&CGreen No. 5, D&C Green No. 6, D&C Green No. 8, D&C Orange No. 4, D&COrange No. 5, D&C Orange No. 10, D&C Orange No. 11, FD&C Red No. 4, D&CRed No. 6, D&C Red No. 7, D&C Red No. 17, D&C Red No. 21, D&C Red No.22, D&C Red No. 27, D&C Red No. 28, D&C Red No. 30, D&C Red No. 31, D&CRed No. 33, D&C Red No. 34, D&C Red No. 36, D&C Red No. 39, D&C VioletNo. 2, D&C Yellow No. 7, Ext. D&C Yellow No. 7, D&C Yellow No. 8, D&CYellow No. 10, D&C Yellow No. 11, D&C Black No. 2, D&C Black No. 3 (3),D&C Brown No. 1, Ext. D&C, Chromium-cobalt-aluminum oxide, Ferricammonium citrate, Pyrogallol, Logwood extract,1,4-Bis[(2-hydroxy-ethyl)amino]-9,10-anthracenedionebis(2-propenoic)ester copolymers, 1,4-Bis[(2-methylphenyl)amino]-9,10-anthracenedione,1,4-Bis[4-(2-methacryloxyethyl) phenylamino] anthraquinone copolymers,Carbazole violet, Chlorophyllin-copper complex, Chromium-cobalt-aluminumoxide, C.I. Vat Orange 1, 2-[[2,5-Diethoxy-4-[(4-methylphenyl)thiol]phenyl]azo]-1,3,5-benzenetriol, 16,23-Dihydrodinaphtho [2,3-a:2′,3′-i]naphth [2′,3′:6,7] indolo [2,3-c] carbazole-5,10,15,17,22,24-hexone,N,N′-(9,10-Dihydro-9,10-dioxo-1,5-anthracenediyl) bisbenzamide,7,16-Dichloro-6,15-dihydro-5,9,14,18-anthrazinetetrone,16,17-Dimethoxydinaphtho (1,2,3-cd:3′,2′,1′-lm) perylene-5,10-dione,Poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate)-dye copolymers(3), Reactive Black 5,Reactive Blue 21, Reactive Orange 78, Reactive Yellow 15, Reactive BlueNo. 19, Reactive Blue No. 4, C.I. Reactive Red 11, C.I. Reactive Yellow86, C.I. Reactive Blue 163, C.I. Reactive Red 180,4-[(2,4-dimethylphenyl)azo]-2,4-dihydro-5-methyl-2-phenyl-3H-pyrazol-3-one(solvent Yellow 18), 6-Ethoxy-2-(6-ethoxy-3-oxobenzo[b]thien-2(3H)-ylidene) benzo[b]thiophen-3(2H)-one, Phthalocyanine green,Vinyl alcohol/methyl methacrylate-dye reaction products, C.I. ReactiveRed 180, C.I. Reactive Black 5, C.I. Reactive Orange 78, C.I. ReactiveYellow 15, C.I. Reactive Blue 21, Disodium1-amino-4-[[4-[(2-bromo-1-oxoallyl)amino]-2-sulphonatophenyl]amino]-9,10-dihydro-9,10-dioxoanthracene-2-sulphonate(Reactive Blue 69), D&C Blue No. 9, [Phthalocyaninato(2-)] copper andmixtures of these.

Other than in the examples herein, or unless otherwise expresslyspecified, all of the numerical ranges, amounts, values and percentages,such as those for amounts of materials, elemental contents, times andtemperatures of reaction, ratios of amounts, and others, in thefollowing portion of the specification and attached claims may be readas if prefaced by the word “about” even though the term “about” may notexpressly appear with the value, amount, or range. Accordingly, unlessindicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in thefollowing specification and attached claims are approximations that mayvary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by thepresent invention. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit theapplication of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims,each numerical parameter should at least be construed in light of thenumber of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary roundingtechniques.

Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forththe broad scope of the invention are approximations, the numericalvalues set forth in the specific examples are reported as precisely aspossible. Any numerical value, however, inherently contains errornecessarily resulting from the standard deviation found in itsunderlying respective testing measurements. Furthermore, when numericalranges are set forth herein, these ranges are inclusive of the recitedrange end points (e.g., end points may be used). When percentages byweight are used herein, the numerical values reported are relative tothe total weight.

Also, it should be understood that any numerical range recited herein isintended to include all sub-ranges subsumed therein. For example, arange of “1 to 10” is intended to include all sub-ranges between (andincluding) the recited minimum value of 1 and the recited maximum valueof 10, that is, having a minimum value equal to or greater than 1 and amaximum value of equal to or less than 10. The terms “one,” “a,” or “an”as used herein are intended to include “at least one” or “one or more,”unless otherwise indicated.

Any patent, publication, or other disclosure material, in whole or inpart, that is said to be incorporated by reference herein isincorporated herein only to the extent that the incorporated materialdoes not conflict with existing definitions, statements, or otherdisclosure material set forth in this disclosure. As such, and to theextent necessary, the disclosure as explicitly set forth hereinsupersedes any conflicting material incorporated herein by reference.Any material, or portion thereof, that is said to be incorporated byreference herein, but which conflicts with existing definitions,statements, or other disclosure material set forth herein will only beincorporated to the extent that no conflict arises between thatincorporated material and the existing disclosure material.

While this invention has been particularly shown and described withreferences to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood bythose skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may bemade therein without departing from the scope of the inventionencompassed by the appended claims.

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method of conveying a material under anelectron beam, the method comprising: exposing a biomass material to anelectron beam while conveying the biomass material on a conveyor, andcooling a surface of the conveyor.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein theconveyer is a vibratory conveyor.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein thevibratory conveyor comprises a vibratory conveyor trough conveying thebiomass.
 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the vibratory conveyor troughcomprises a first surface of the vibratory conveyor trough conveying thebiomass, and cooling comprises cooling a second surface of the vibratoryconveyor trough by contacting the second surface with a coolingenclosure containing a cooling fluid, wherein the first and secondsurfaces of the vibratory conveyor trough are in thermal communication.5. The method of claim 4, wherein the distance between the first andsecond surface of the vibratory conveyor trough is between about 1/64and 2 inches.
 6. The method of claim 4, wherein the second surface ofthe vibratory conveyor trough forms a part of the cooling enclosure. 7.The method of claim 4, further comprising flowing fluid through thecooling enclosure by flowing the cooling fluid into the coolingenclosure through an inlet to the enclosure and flowing the fluid out ofthe cooling enclosure through an outlet from the cooling enclosure. 8.The method of claim 7, wherein the cooling enclosure comprises channelsconfigured to allow the flow of the cooling agent from the inlet to theoutlet.
 9. The method of claim 7, further comprising maintaining adifference in the temperature of the cooling agent at the inlet of thecooling enclosure to the temperature at the outlet of the enclosure ofbetween about 2 to 120° C.
 10. The method of claim 6, further comprisingmaintaining a flow rate of cooling fluid through the cooling enclosureof between 0.5 and 150 gallons/minute.